Soh

请参阅:本觉与修证一如


https://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BJ011/bj11_408.htm

 道元禪師的佛性思想

釋恒清

佛學研究中心學報第四期

1999  7月出版

209-258

 

209

提要

  道元禪師是日本佛教史上極為傑出的思想家和宗教家。《正法眼藏》是其思想精華的代表作。本文就其中〈佛性〉、〈辦道話〉、〈現成公案〉、〈有時〉等篇探討道元的佛性思想。

  第一部分討論道元佛性思想形成的背景。道元的佛性思想和修證觀源自他對日本天台宗本覺思想的疑惑,對此疑惑,道元在中國禪師如淨處獲得「身心脫落」般徹底的開解。本覺思想可溯源自中印佛教的如來藏/佛性思想,故本文第二部分略論其發展史。

  第三部分探討道元的佛性觀。首先討論道元對佛性誤解的駁斥。其次,討論道元如何依「時節」、「有佛性」、「無佛性」等觀念詮 釋佛性義,及建立其「無常佛性」的思想。

  最後部分論及「批判佛教」如何解讀和批判道元的佛性思想。

 

210

一、道元佛性思想形成的背景

  道元禪師(1200-1253)是日本曹洞宗的始祖,也是日本佛教史上最富哲理的思想家。然而,可能由於宗派意識的隔閡,道元的思想並未在日本思想史中受到應有的重視。倒是近代由於京都學派學者和𠕇哲郎一文〈沙門道元〉, 1點燃了現代曹洞宗門下,以及日本和西方佛教學者對道元的廣泛和深入的研究, 2尤其最近幾年日本佛學界掀起所謂「批判佛教(critical Buddhism)」的論戰,道元的佛性思想更是成為批判的對象,本文最後部份將對此詳加討論。

  道元佛性思想的形成,與其對佛法的探索和宗教體驗,有著密不可分的關係,從以下道元的生平簡歷即可看出。有關道元的傳記文獻,除了屬自傳性質的第一手資料,如《寶慶記》、 3《正法眼藏嗣書》之外,有道元的直傳弟子所記載的,如道元高徒懷奘的《正法眼藏隨聞記》。 4再者,曹洞宗

 

211

 

後代為紀念道元的德學而編撰的傳記,如《永平寺三祖行業記》、《建撕記》、《永平開山道元和尚行錄》等(以上三典籍均收於《曹洞宗全書》)。根據這些史料,許多現代日本和西方學者,對道元的傳記做了精密詳實的考證和研究,最具代表性的有大久保道舟的《道元禪師傳の研究》、鏡島元隆所著《道元禪師門流》、佐藤達玄的《道元の生涯》等。 5最近由熊本英人主編的《道元思想大系》共二十二冊,前六冊屬「傳記篇」,都是有關道元傳記的研究論文,可謂巨細靡遺。

  雖然道元在「吉祥寺永平寺眾寮箴規」中示眾云﹕「但念四河入海,無復本名,四海出家同稱釋氏之佛語」, 6但是為了暸解道元的整個生命歷程,還是有需要知道他出家前的家庭背景。道元於公元一二○○年在京都出生,正逢日本佛教黃金時代的「鐮倉佛教」, 7亦是幕府政治權力鬥爭社會動盪不安的時代。

  根據《永平寺三祖行業記》所載,道元出身名門貴族,母親是松殿伊子,十六歲嫁給武將木曾義仲。木曾後來因戰役失利而自殺身亡。伊子父親為了攀附權貴,將伊子再嫁內大臣久我通親。雖然道元的父親貴為天皇後裔,且享有高官權勢,但是在道元三歲時即猝死。道元的異母兄長久我通具即負起養育道元的責任。久我通親和通具父子均擅長詩歌,對道元文才的培育深具影響。

  道元八歲時,慈母病逝,悲痛的遭遇,在道元幼小而敏銳的心靈激起極大的震撼。《三祖行業記》記載道元「遇慈母喪,觀香火之煙,潛悟世間無常,深立求法大願。」 8據《正法眼藏隨聞記》第五所載,道元亦曾自云﹕

 

212

「我初正因無常,聊發道心。」 9諸行無常,一切皆苦本是佛教一直強調的「聖諦」。人人每天都生活在無常生滅不已的世間,但是有些人懞然不覺,有些人習以為常,有些人則因種種不同的人生境遇而頓然領悟無常的道理,進而邁向宗教的解脫之路。引發「無常感」的因緣各有不同, 10對悉達多而言,生老病死的歷程是無常的寫照,對八歲的道元而言,慈母的仙逝是無常的親身經驗,也是促成他日後選擇出家求法的重要因素。 11

  自喪母之後,善根深厚的道元即開始接觸佛法。《建撕記》說道元九歲時開始閱讀《俱舍論》(Abhidharmakosa)。十三歲時道元從收養他的大舅松殿家逃往比叡山,投靠另一位已出家的舅父良顯法師。蒞年(一二一四年)經良顯的引薦,道元從千光房的公𧪄和尚剃髮得度,因此道元的最初師承是來自天臺宗而非禪宗。日本天臺宗為最澄所創立,與中國的天臺宗有很大差異,到了道元時代,日本天臺宗已融合了禪宗、律宗、密宗等教義,形成所謂「天臺密宗」(臺密)。當時身為天臺宗大本山的比叡山已非很理想的修行環境。宗門中的圓仁和圓珍兩派系發生嚴重的分裂和鬥爭,僧兵應運而生。僧團著重的是繁複的密教儀式,形式主義取代了教理的真修實學。在如此的修學背景下,原本出身於比叡山天臺僧團的法然、親鸞、日蓮、榮西等紛紛脫離比叡山,另創新興宗派,而後來道元的「出走」也是對腐敗沒落的天臺教團的必然反應。

  道元除了對比叡山大環境的不滿外,重要的是他對天臺「本覺思想」產生極大的疑惑。道元的疑問起自《大般涅槃經》所說的「一切眾生悉有佛性」。《建撕記》記載﹕

 

(道元)自十三歲至十八歲六個年之間,看閱一切經二遍。宗家之大事,法門之大綱「本來本法性,天然自性身」,此理顯密之兩宗不為落居。大有疑滯,三井寺公胤僧正所參,如自本法身法性者,諸佛為什麼更發心修行三菩提之道? 註12

213

  絕頂聰慧的道元,經過二次遍閱一切經之後,產生了「自性真如」與修證上矛盾的質疑,換言之,如果眾生本來具足本覺佛性的「法性自性身」,何需再苦苦修行。道元以此問題就教於被稱為「顯密之明匠、法海之龍象」的公胤僧正,但是因為公胤專修淨土,對於道元的疑問無法作答,乃建議道元去參訪日本臨濟宗祖師榮西禪師(1141-1215)。另外,公胤也鼓勵道元說﹕「此問輒不可答。雖有家訓,訣未盡義。傳聞大宋國傳佛心印,有正宗,直入宋求覓。」道元約在一二一四年短暫參訪過榮西禪師。 13依據一九三○年才被發現的道元自傳體記錄《寶慶記》,道元曾自言「後入千光禪師之室,初聞臨濟之宗風」。千光禪師即榮西,可是由於榮西自己在京都和鎌倉之間忙於弘揚臨濟禪,再加上隔年榮西即入寂,所以道元在榮西處可能所學不多。一二一七年道元在建仁寺拜榮西高徒明全為師,學習顯密之奧義和律藏戒儀。然而經過數年的探求,還是無法獲得答案,以解開他的「大疑」。他曾自述﹕「我初正因無常,聊發道心。諸方參學,終辭(比叡)山門,駐錫建仁寺。其間未遇明師善友,深受迷團妄念所困。」 14

  道元終因迷團未解,再加上公胤曾鼓勵他「入宋求道」,於是在貞應二年(一二二三年),與其師明全等一行入宋求法。抵達明州慶元府之後,明全先行至天童山掛錫,道元則滯留在船上約三個月左右。根據小寺隆孝的推測,道元不能馬上與明全一起駐錫天童山,可能是因為他只受過菩薩戒,但未曾受比丘具足戒。 15

  道元正好利用這三個月時間,參訪附近的山寺,淺嘗中國佛教的禪風道格。其間有一次經驗,不但使道元在宋的求法的過程中得到很大受用,也深深影響他日後「修證一如」的佛性觀和修行觀,在《典座教訓》中道元詳細描述了這次因緣。 16有一天有位來自阿育王寺的老典座來到船上想買日本出

 

214

產的食菌類「椹」,以便烹煮供養十方雲納。道元便請他留在「舶裏說話以結好緣」,但是老典座說他必需趕回寺中,以便隔日為大眾準備齋粥。道元便說﹕「寺裏何無同事者理會齊粥乎?典座一人不在,有什麼缺闕?」老典座慎重地回答說﹕「吾老年掌此職,乃耄及之辦道也,何以可讓他乎?又來時未請一夜宿暇。」由此可見老典座的盡守職務,並把每日的「理會齋粥」當作「辦道」。但是此時道元還未意會此意,再問他﹕「坐尊年,何不坐禪辦道,看古人話頭,煩充典座只管作務,有甚好事?」老典座大笑云﹕「外國人未了得辦道,未知得文字在。」道元一聽「忽然發慚驚心」,便問他﹕「如何是文字?如何是辦道?」老典座說﹕「若不磋過問處,豈非其人也」。當時道元未能理會其意,老典座邀約道元他日到阿育王寺去「一番商量文字道理」。兩個月後,老典座辭去典座一職,準備還鄉時,得知道元已在天童山掛錫,乃特來相會。道元雀躍不已,並趕緊再請教前日在船舶裏提及有關文字和辦道的問題﹕

典座云﹕「學文字者為知文字故也,務辦道者要肯辦道也。」

道元問曰﹕「如何是文字?」座云﹕「一二三四五。」

又問﹕「如何是辦道?」座云﹕「𣳈界不曾藏。」

 

道元聽了老典座的開示,顯然有所領悟,因為他自承「山僧敢知文字、了辦道,乃彼典座之大恩」。後來道元看到雪竇禪師有頌云﹕「一字七字三五字,萬像窮來不為據。夜深月白下滄溟,搜得驪珠有多許」,與典座所說相對應,更覺得彼典座是「真道人也」。道元依這次經驗的體悟教誡他的弟子們說﹕

 

「從來所看之文字是一二三四五也,今日所看之文字亦六七八九十也。後來兄弟從這頭看了那頭,從那頭看了這頭,作恁功夫,便了得文字上一味禪去也。若不如是,被諸方五味禪之毒,排辨僧食未能得好手也。」 註17

  總括言之,道元在與老典座之間蘊含禪機的公案式回答中,領悟到了二大道理。一者是雖然禪宗有所謂「不立文字」的傳統,而且道元在修行方法

 

215

上,也一再強調「只管打坐」,但是道元從來未曾排斥「文字佛法」。事實上,道元是個深得「文字三昧」的高手,不但寫下《正法眼藏》、《學道用心集》、《普勸坐禪儀》等哲理性和實踐性的大作,並且能隨心所欲地將經文做創造性的解讀(甚至故意誤讀)以表達自己的獨特見解。就如他自己所說的能做到「從這頭看到那頭,從那頭看到這頭,作恁功夫,便了得文字上一味禪也」。

  二者道元從老典座身上目睹中國禪宗「𠊠處不曾藏」的辦道觀,使本來以為「坐禪辦道看古人話頭」,優於「煩充典座只管作務」的道元暸解到「搬柴運水,處處是道場」的禪風,這也是為什麼道元回國後寫了《典座教訓》,詳述一般人認為日日調辦齋粥的俗務,事實上卻是「長養聖胎之業」。更重要的,這次經驗也是構成道元「修證一如」的佛性觀和修證觀的因素。換言之,道元體會到老典座認真地把日常俗務當成「辦道」、「佛事」,正是「修中證,證中修」修證不二的最佳典範。

  儘管道元抵大宋不久即有機緣遇見老典座這樣的善知識,但還是未能解開他有關佛性方面的大疑。道元在往後二、三年中參訪天童山、阿育王寺、徑山萬壽寺等諸山長老,在遍求正師不可得而感到失望挫折之際,有位老僧人告訴道元天童如淨(1163-1228) 18接任天童山住持,並鼓勵他前去求法。道元在寶慶元年(一二二五年)五月一日正示拜見如淨。《寶慶記》中記載道元向如淨陳述自己求法覓師的心路歷程,並懇請攝受教誨。 19如淨一見道元,即知為龍象法器,特別允許他不拘晝夜隨時可到方丈室問道請益,於是二者從此建立「感應道交」 20的師徒之誼,達成了道元尋求「正師」之心願,

216

道元尋求的是什麼樣的正師泥?他在《永平初祖學道用心集》解釋說﹕

 

「夫正師者,不問年老耆宿,唯明正法兮,得正師之印證也。文字不為先,解會不為先,有格之力量,有過節之志氣,不拘我見,不滯情識,行解相應,是乃正師也」。 註21

 

  道元在師事正師如淨的二年中,參問了許多疑難,包括教理問題,如善惡性、因果、了義經,和實踐問題,如辦道根本、坐禪方法、除六蓋等,甚至日常生活中著襪、搭法衣,蓄長髮長抓等問題。其中最重要的是有關禪法教示,以及對道元「大疑」的解答。道元在《寶慶記》記載了如淨對禪法的重要開示﹕

堂頭和尚(如淨禪師)示曰﹕「參禪者身心脫落也。 註22不用燒香、禮拜、念佛、修懺、看經,祇管打坐而已。」

拜問﹕「身心脫落者何?」

堂頭和尚示曰﹕「身心脫落者坐禪也。祇管坐禪時,離五欲,除五蓋也。」 註23

  如淨的禪法就是在參禪時,排除其他念佛、拜懺、看經等修行方法,祇管打坐到進入身心脫落的境界。至於什麼是「身心脫落」的境界呢?如淨的回答是身心脫落就是坐禪,而在祇管坐禪時,身境和心境必須「脫落」五欲(財、色、名、食、睡)和五蓋(貪欲、瞋恚、惛眠、掉悔、疑)。對此,道元提出疑問﹕「若離五欲、除五蓋者,乃同教家之所談也,即為大小兩乘之行人者乎?」佛教大小乘各宗派均強調修行者須離五欲,除五蓋,如此則

 

217

「宗下」行者豈不與其他「教下」大小乘行者無異?如淨回答說﹕「祖師兒孫!不可強嫌大小兩乘之所說也。學者若背如來之聖教,何稱佛祖之兒孫者歟?」 24由此可見,與當時有些認為「三毒即佛法,五欲即祖道」 25的「狂禪」行者相比較,如淨雖不注重傳統的燒香、禮拜、修懺等事相形式的修行方式,卻非常重視心性的淨化,這深深地影響道元「本證妙修」的思想。道元自己對「身心脫落」的意義有更豐富哲理的解釋:

慣習佛道者,慣習自己也。慣習自己者,坐忘自己也。坐忘自己者,見証萬法也。見証萬法者,使自己身心及它已身心脫落也。有悟跡休歇焉,今休歇悟㙉長長去。 註26

  除了學得如淨禪法的精髓之外,道元還從如淨處解開其有關佛性的大疑。根據《寶慶記》中道元自己的記錄,他們師徒之間的有如下的問答﹕

(道元)拜問﹕「古今善知識曰﹕『如魚飲水冷暖自知,此自知即覺也。以之為菩提之悟。』道元難云﹕『若自知即正覺者,一切眾生皆有自知。一切眾生依有自知,可為正覺之如來耶?』或人云﹕『可然,一切眾生無始本有之如來也。』或人云﹕『一切眾生不必皆是如來。所以者何?若知自覺性智即是覺者,即是如來也,未知者不是也。』如是等說可是佛法乎?」

(如淨)和尚曰﹕「若言一切眾生本是佛者,還同自然外道也。以我我所比諸佛,不可免未得謂得,未證謂證者也。」 註27

以上引文中道元所說的「自知」,即正覺的佛性。而他的疑問是既然一切眾生皆有佛性,可否依此佛性成為正覺的如來。對此問題,向來有二種看法,

218

一者是一切眾生無始以來本來即是如來,另一種說法是眾生不必皆是如來,那些能自證知自覺性智(佛性)的眾生即是如來,不能自證知者即不是如來。如淨反對前說,他認為主張一切眾生本是佛者,即同「自然外道」, 28將證悟成佛視為無因而生,完全不合乎佛教的因緣法。由於如淨如此明確的教示,道元終於暸解透過一心一意的祇管打坐,經歷「身心脫落」、「脫落脫落」的洗鍊後,才能達到佛性的體證。但是這個歷程不是「單行道」式的直線進行,而是「圓形式」的不斷循環過程,這就是道元在《正法眼藏‧辦道話》所說的「既修之證,則證無際;證之修,則修無始」。 29

  寶慶三年(一二二七年)道元辭別如淨,準備離宋歸國,如淨授於曹洞宗嗣書,正式繼承如淨衣𣘀,完成了其自述的「一生參學大事,曰了畢矣。」 30後來道元在對他的弟子們描述他在宋的求法心路歷程時說道﹕「山僧是歷叢林不多,只是等閑見先師天童。然而不被天童謾,天童還被山僧謾。近來空手還鄉,所以山僧無佛法,任運且延時。朝朝日東出,夜夜月落西,雲收山谷靜,雨過四山低,三年必一閏,雞向五更啼」。 31最特殊的是道元「空手還鄉」。與其他到印度、中土求法者不同的是,道元攜回的不是任何經書、佛像,而是已證悟佛法真諦的自己,意味著自己就是佛法的體現,充分表現對自己的信心。雖然道元自稱「山僧無佛法」,卻能任運自在,如同「朝朝日東出,夜夜月落西,三年必一閏,雞向五更啼」一樣地自然。

  道元回日時二十六歲,一直致力於弘化和著述,直到建長五年(一二五三年)入寂為止。 32其中最重要的是完成了《正法眼藏》、《永平廣錄》、《永平清規》、《普勸坐禪儀》等重要著作,而其佛性思想則是出自最富哲理的《正法眼藏》和《永平廣錄》。由於佛性思想源遠流長,在不同典籍和不同宗派出現不同的義涵,爭議點不少。為了能充分暸解道元的佛性思想背景,有需先暸解佛性思想的發展。

 

219頁

  1. 佛性思想的發展

  2.   對佛教徒而言,有三個最終極的宗教問題﹕第一個問題是他們所追求的宗教目標──「佛」的本質是什麼?第二個問題是身為凡夫眾生的他們的本質又是什麼?第三個問題是如何使二者關連起來,而達到他們最終成佛的目標。自《阿含經》開始,大小乘經論即不斷討論這些問題。《阿含經》所說「此心極光淨,而客塵煩惱雜染」的「自性清淨心」即是佛性說的淵源。《阿含經》的心性說基本上認為一般凡夫的心性本質上是清淨,與佛的心性本質是相同的,但是因為凡夫「無聞、無修心,不如實解」,
     33其清淨心為煩惱所染。煩惱和清淨心是客塵關係,非本然的,因此只要眾生致力於聞思修,即可去除煩惱。雖然《阿含經》中的自性清淨心意指「自性」的清淨,表現其主體性(與煩惱的客體性相對),但它還是屬於較靜態(static)和被動的存在,不像後來如來藏系思想中所說的「自性清淨心」(如來藏)含有動態(dynamic)和主動(active)的特性。《阿含經》的心性說表現的是素樸的修心實踐論,不過,其心性本淨客塵煩惱說給予往後佛性的心性論立下了基本的模式。

      在部派佛教中,大眾部和分別說部延襲了《阿含經》的說法,繼續宏揚心性本淨說,認為未斷煩惱前,眾生的自性是性淨而相染,如《大毘婆沙論》說﹕「聖道未現前,煩惱未斷故,心有隨眠。聖道現前,煩惱斷故,心無隨眠。此心雖(有)隨眠、無隨眠時異,而性是一。」 34但是,心性自淨說並非普遍地被所有部派所接受,說一切有部即認為它是「非經」、「非了義說」。《成實論》也說﹕「心性非是本淨,客塵故不淨,但佛為眾生謂心常在,故說客塵所染則心不淨。又佛為懈怠眾生,若聞心本不淨,便謂性不可改,則不發淨心,故說本淨」。 35《成實論》的思想屬於經量部,不主張心性本淨,而認為本淨說乃是佛為鼓勵懈怠眾生的方便說,因為它與原始佛教的根本要義「無我」的理論有相當的差距。

      大乘佛教興起後,繼續弘傳心性本淨說,各學派依各自獨特的立場加以詮釋。例如般若學系,就從其基本教義「空」的立場來解說自性清淨心。如《小品般若波羅蜜經》說﹕「菩薩行般若波羅蜜多時,應如是學﹕不念是菩

     

    220

     

    薩心,所以者何?是心非心,心相本淨故。」 36般若經把心性清淨解釋為「非心」。「非心」意指心空、心不可得、超越有無。因此在經中舍利弗問到「非心」(即自性清淨心)是否存在時,須菩提回答﹕「非心性中,有性無性既不可得,如何可問是心為有心非心性不?」 37依般若空義,「心」固然不可得,「非心」亦不可得。如此推論,則自性清淨亦不可得、非有非無。般若法門中一切法「本性空」,而就此基礎上言「本性淨」。這也就是《大智度論》所說的「畢竟空即是畢竟淨清」。 38般若法門之把心視為自性清淨,乃建立於其自性空上。這種說法當然符合般若教理,但與後來的真常系發展出的自性清淨心含「空」與「不空」兩個層面有很大不同。再者,《大智度論》說﹕「以人畏空,故言清淨」, 39把心清淨說視為方便說,也與真常說的根本意趣相左。

      將心性本淨的理論體系化的是在三世紀左右興起的如來藏學說。 40「如來藏」(Tathagatagarbha)一詞漸漸取代了自性清淨心。如來藏是如來與藏的複合字。如來含有「如去」(tatha-gata)和「如來」(tatha-agata)兩個意義。前者意指修「如」實法而「去」(由生死去涅槃),後者意指乘「如」實法而「來」(由涅槃來生死)。「藏」亦有二義﹕胎(兒)藏和母胎。因此,如來藏可以意謂如來的母胎(蘊育新的生命),或胎兒如來(已蘊育出的新生命)。前者象徵如來的「因性」,後者象徵如來的「果性」。從如來藏這二個最原始的字義,發展出後來所謂的「自性清淨」(prakrti-viwuddhi)和「離垢清淨」(vaimalya-viwuddhi)、「本有」和「始有」、「本覺」和「始覺」等相對的概念。在這些概念的發展過程中,被加上了推衍性的詮釋(如日本天台宗的本覺思想),這也就是道元疑團的所在。

      有關如來藏思想的經論為數不少,但主流者有《如來藏經》、《不增不減經》、《勝鬘夫人經》、《寶性論》等。《如來藏經》是奠定如來藏說基礎架構最重要的經典。雖然其篇幅極小,但主體相當明確,經中以九種譬喻,直指如來藏學系的中心思想「一切眾生皆有如來藏」。《不增不減經》從眾生界的不增不減說明如來藏的空義、不空義、平等義,其文約義精,近於論

     

    221

    典的體裁,是如來藏學義理的重要依據。《勝鬘夫人經》強調「正法」(一乘)的殊勝,從闡明一乘而說到如來藏自性清淨心,且首度以「空如來藏」、「不空如來藏」說明如來藏,深具特色。《寶性論》是代表如來藏學的集大成論典。它廣引各種經論,從佛寶、法寶、僧寶、佛性、菩提、功德、業(七金剛句)等層面,詳論如來藏思想,尤其以「法身遍滿、真如無差別、實有佛性」三義來解釋「一切眾生皆有如來藏」,更突顯其特色。

      除了以上主流的三經一論之外,《大般涅槃經》也是闡揚如來藏的要典,對中國和日本佛教影響更為深遠。在《大般涅槃經》中,「佛性」一詞取代了如來藏。雖然佛性和如來藏意義相通,但佛性並不是譯自tathagatagarbhabuddhata、或buddhatva。根據一些學者對照有佛性一詞的梵文和藏文原典,發現「佛性」是譯自buddhadhatu(佛界)。 41 Buddhadhatu含有二義﹕(1)佛之體性﹕the nature (dhatu=dhamata 界=法性) of the Buddha,(2)佛之因性﹕the cause (dhatu=hetu,界=因) of the Buddha。以前者而言,佛性是諸佛的本質,也是眾生之能成佛的先天性依據,而後者是眾生能真正成佛的動力。因此,針對前者,《涅槃經》大談「如來常住無有變異」和「常樂我淨涅槃四德」,而針對後者,則強調「一切眾生悉有佛性」,至於悉有佛性和究竟成佛是否有必然關係,則留下了很大可討論的空間。《涅槃經》一方面主張隱含「有」意味的「如來常住論」、「涅槃四德」,另一方面將中道「第一義空」解釋為「正因佛性」,也是很值得注意的教義。

      《涅槃經》固然是中國佛教佛性思想最重要的依據,但是在它整個思想的發展史上,影響最大的是《大乘起信論》。《起信論》的中心教義可綜合為「一心,二門,三大,四信,五行」。「一心」是指「眾生心」,即是眾生本具的如來藏自性清淨心,它同時蘊含著二方面的屬性(二門)﹕清淨本然的「心真如門」和隨三細六麤所染的「心生滅門」。但是無論眾生的心性是處在那一個「門」內,它基本上有「三大」義。以其「體大」而言,眾生心體空無妄,真心常恒不變,表現在眾生心「相大」的是它所含藏的無量無盡的如來功德淨法,而眾生心的「用大」是在於它能發揮其無盡的功德本性,成為不可思議的利他業用,以產生一切世間和出世間的善因果,最後達到成

    222

    佛的目標。

      《起信論》的基本立場是法界的一心論,試圖會通和闡試真如門自性清心和生滅門染污虛妄心如何融攝於「一心」中。在如來藏緣起說的架構中,《起信論》使用了「本覺」和「始覺」的名詞,前者指處於「覺」狀態的如來藏清淨心,後者指「不覺」隨染的染污心。《起信論》的本覺說漸漸與華嚴宗的唯心法門合流,澄觀的「靈知不昧之一心」,與宗密的「本覺真心」都深受本覺說的影響。《圓覺經》、《釋摩訶衍論》等經論陸續譯出後,漸漸發展出眾生「本來是佛」的本覺思想,亦深深影響了日本天台宗的本覺法門,而道元的疑團也就是由此而起。

      佛性思想在中國佛教的發展之關鍵人物是竺道生(355-434)。他在大本《涅槃經》未傳入之前,就能「孤明先發」,倡言一切眾生悉有佛性故,一闡提亦可成佛,開啟了南北朝時期各種佛性論說爭鳴的盛況。當時有《大乘玄論》所謂的「正因佛性十一家」和《大乘玄論》的「正因佛性本三家末三家」,諸家都著重在佛性一詞的釋義上,反應了初期對佛性的暸解。到了隋唐時期的天台宗、華嚴宗、禪宗等,對佛性思想的內容,有更深度的闡發和創造性的詮釋,而性宗和相宗對「一性皆成」和「五性各別」也曾有精彩的論辯。

      華嚴宗的佛性思想以其「性起」理論為基礎,發展出法界緣起說,主張一切眾生無不具足如來智慧,一切諸法稱性而起,正是佛性的體現。相對與華嚴宗的性起說,天台宗主張「性具」,即一切法具一法,一法具一切法。在「一念三千」、「十界互具」、「三諦圓融」的性具思想基礎上,天台宗提出最具創造性的「性惡論」和「草木成佛」的佛性思想。「性惡論」將佛性本質的探討推展到另一個層次,即在果位上,佛性本具無量淨法(性善),殆無異議,然而是否也同時存在著「性惡」呢?「性惡論」認為佛與一闡提皆具性善和性惡,不同的是一闡提雖具性善,但未斷修惡,而佛雖不斷性惡,但不起修惡。性惡論除了顯示佛能「于惡自在」之外,最大意義在於證成一闡提因性善終可成佛。

      天台宗師倡導無情有性、草木成佛最有力的是湛然,他在《金剛滛》中以真如遍在、三因佛性等思想,架構在性具理論上去論證無情有性,甚至可成佛,將中土的佛性思想推衍到最高點。道元在他的著作中,亦主張無情有性的說法。

      日本佛教本覺思想最初的弘揚者是空海(774-835),他在《十住心論》、

    223

     

    《秘藏寶鑰》、《弁顯密二教論》中,廣引《釋摩訶衍論》 42的本覺說,如「清淨本覺從無始來,不觀修行,非得他力,性德圓滿,本智具足。」 43在《金剛頂經開題》中,空海更把本覺絕對化,他說﹕「自他本覺佛,則法爾自覺,本來具足三身四德,無始圓滿恆沙功德。」 44空海的真言密教對後來的天台本覺思想有很大影響。

      比叡山的最澄(767-822)自中國天台宗引進本覺思想後,日本天台宗即不斷提倡本覺思想。 45最澄的《本理大綱集》是天台本覺思想初期的代表作,此書從三身論、五時論、十界互具論、阿字論四個「本理」來闡釋本覺思想。再者,在《天台法華宗牛頭法門要纂》中,最澄以「佛界不增」、「煩惱即菩提」、「即身成佛」、「無明即明」等概念解釋本覺。他所說的「我色心本佛,眾生本來成佛」、「以心性本覺,為無作實佛」等,都成為後來天台本覺思想的依據。 46在平安時期到鎌倉初期之間,良源(912-985)和源信(942-1017)是代表人物。良源撰有《本覺讚》和《註本覺讚》,其高徒源信(942-1017)則撰《本覺讚釋》詳加解釋始覺、本覺的意義。另外,源信於其《真如觀》中,更將本覺推衍成「本覺真如」,他說﹕「一切眾生皆出自本覺真如之理」、「草木、瓦礫、山河、大地、大海、虛空、皆是真如佛物。向虛空,虛空則佛也,向大地,大地則佛也。」 47本覺思想不但義涵有情眾生的「即身即佛」,更推展到無情「草木國土悉皆成佛」的層次。

      鎌倉佛教後期(十三世紀)是天台本覺思想體系化的時期,忠尋(1065-1138)是代表性人物,其著作有《漢光類聚》、《法華略義見聞》,其中,「四重興廢」為其特色。「四重」指「爾前」、「㙉門」、「本門」、「觀心」。以「四重興廢」論煩惱即菩提的話,則「爾前大教煩惱非菩提,㙉門大教煩惱即菩提,本門大教煩惱即煩惱、菩提即菩提,觀門大教非煩惱

    224

    非菩提」, 48換言之,可以從理、事來暸解四重的進展階段﹕理二元論‧事二元論(爾前);理一元論‧事二元論(㙉門);理一元論‧事一元論(本門);理事根本一元論(觀心)。 49從這種進展階次而言,最後一重的「觀心」為最勝,發展出「一念已證」、「觀心內證」的究極心要,容易產生偏重「本覺‧無作‧理成」的本門,忽略「始覺‧有作‧事成」的㙉門。因此,忠尋在《漢光類聚》就質疑說﹕「惡當體若止觀惡,惡無礙惡見也如何?若依之爾也云一切法本是佛法也,爭可除惡耶?」,又「止觀行者,不畏殺生偷盜之惡業,恣意作行耶?」答曰﹕「若任運無作行惡業,不相違也。觀音現海人殺諸魚虫…」 50日本天台本覺思想的發展,除了產生「即身是佛,何須修行」的極端想法之外,就是這種「惡無礙」善惡不分的道德偏差觀念。這些對本覺的誤解,當時就已曾引起批判。寶地房證真(因曾駐錫寶地房而得名)即為一例。證真於其著述《法華三大部私記》中的《法華玄義私記》就批判「本來自覺佛」是違經、違論、違宗、違名、違理,故非佛法真義。 51總之,道元是在這種本覺思想諸多爭議的背景下,展開他探索本覺真義的歷程。

    三、道元的佛性觀

     

      道元的佛性思想散見於《正法眼藏》的〈佛性〉、〈辦道話〉、〈即心是佛〉、〈行佛威儀〉等諸篇,其中〈佛性〉篇當然是最重要。這是道元於仁治二年(一二四一)十月十四日,在京都的觀音導利興寶林寺給僧眾的開示。關於佛性,有幾個關鍵性的問題﹕佛的究竟本質(佛性)為何?眾生的究竟本質又是如何(有佛性,無佛性或無常佛性)?佛與眾生之究竟本質的關連又是如何(是一,是二)?眾生的本質如何提昇到佛的本質(是本證,妙修,或修證不二)?這些問題其實就是整個佛法最根本最重要的問題,只是在不同的經論、宗派各有其獨特的說法。在道元的時代,不管是顯(天台宗)密(真言宗)都已發展出「本來本法性,天然自性身」的佛性觀,於是接下來道元的問題自然是「如本自法身法性成者,為何更發心修行菩提

    225

    道?」其實,在這個問題之前,還有一個問題,即眾生如本自法身法性成者,何以佛與眾生有所不同?因有不同,才須發心修行。總之,以這些問題為基礎,道元不但建立了他的佛性觀,更重要的,建立了他的修證觀,徹底解決了他宗教生命的大疑團。

    《正法眼藏‧佛性》篇的內容可以科分如下﹕ 52

    (一)序節《涅槃經》的佛性義及道元的佛性義詮釋

    1.「一切眾悉有佛性」的意義

    2.駁斥以佛性為覺知主體的先尼外道說

    3.駁斥以佛性為草本種子的凡夫情量

    4.佛性的時節因緣說

    (二)諸祖師之佛性觀

    1.馬鳴之「佛性海」

    2.四祖道信之「無佛性」

    3.五祖弘忍之「嶺南人無佛性」

    4.六祖慧能之「無常佛性」

    5.龍樹之「圓月相」

    6.鹽官齊安之「一切眾生有佛性」

    7.溈山靈祐之「一切眾生無佛性」

    8.百丈懷海之「五陰不壞身淨妙國土」

    9.黃檗與南泉之問答「定慧等學,明見佛性」

    10.趙州從諗之「狗子佛性」

    11.長沙景岑之「蚯蚓斬為兩段」公案的佛性說

    (三)結語

    1. 佛性的定義:「悉有」即「佛性」

      道元在〈佛性〉篇,一開始即引《涅槃經‧師子吼品》的名句「一切眾生,悉有佛性;如來常住,無有變異」,並讚嘆此是釋尊轉法輪的獅子吼,亦是一切諸佛祖師之頂𠍇眼睛。本來《涅槃經》所說的一切眾生悉有佛性,語義鮮明清楚,傳統讀法意指所有眾生本具成佛的種性,即佛性(或曰如來藏)。雖然目前眾生於處虛妄煩惱中,但由於他們潛存的佛性,終究可證悟。

     

    226

    這種解讀,將佛性視為主體眾生可追求和實現的客體目標,因此意味著主體與客體、現在與未來、本能與可能、內在與外在等的二元分立。道元並不認同這種佛性見解,而提出他自己獨具創意的解讀,雖然他的新讀法顯然違反了中文語法的規則。他說﹕

      「悉有」言者「眾生」也,即「有」也。即「悉有」者「眾生」也。悉有一分云眾生。正當恁麼時,   

      眾生內外即佛性悉有也。 註53

      在道元的新讀法中,「一切眾生悉有佛性」變成「一切」即「眾生」,「悉有」即「佛性」,反過來亦可以說「佛性」即「悉有」(一切存在),而「悉有之一分」為眾生。道元將佛性當下與悉有的一切存在結合,超越對立的二元,而「悉有之一分」更義涵著將悉有擴展到包含一切有生命和無生命(有情與非情)的「超人類中心主義」(De-anthropocentrism)的領域。包括有情和非情的一切存在不外是當下的佛性,二者二而不二,因此道元特別又解釋「悉有」的意義﹕

    應知今為佛性所悉有(之)有,則非有無(之)有。悉有是佛語也,佛舌也,佛祖眼睛,衲僧鼻孔也。悉有之言,更非始有,非本有,非妙有等,況緣有、妄有乎?不拘心、境、性、相等。 註54

    對佛性悉有之「有」,道元首先遣非,即「有」並非「有、無」之有,否則即落入二元對立的存在,有違佛教一向強調的不二法門。悉有佛性是前後際斷的悉有,故亦非始有。始有意味「本無今有」,對佛性非「本無今有」的意義,《大般涅槃經》中的「本有今無偈」中可供參考﹕

    涅槃之體非本無今有者,若涅槃本無今有者,則非無漏常住之法。有佛無佛,性相常住,以諸眾生煩惱覆故,不見涅槃,便謂為無。菩薩摩訶薩以戒定慧勤修其心,斷煩惱已,便得見之。當知涅槃是常住法,非本無今有。 註55

     

    227

     

      佛性如屬本無今有的始有(始覺),則非無漏常住之法,果如是則淨法之產生無必然之先天依據而純屬偶然。其實,不管「有佛無佛,性相常住」,只是眾生被煩惱所覆不得見。但是,雖說悉有佛性非始有,並非表示它是本有,因為佛性並非實體性的存在,否則即有違佛教無我的根本教義,再者,道元認為「悉有即佛性」亦非妙有,因為妙有雖有,如幻即空,非緣生而有,非外道妄執有我見之有,亦不拘於心、境、性、相等迷妄有漏法,因為眾生悉有外在的物質環境世界(依報)和內在的身心主體(正報),都「非業增上力(所感),非妄緣起,非法爾,非神通修證 56」。 57

      總之,道元先以遣非方式解釋佛性,就如〈佛性〉篇所說﹕

       世尊道﹕「一切眾生,悉有佛性」,其宗旨為何?是什麼物恁麼來,道轉法輪也 註58

    這個「什麼物恁麼來」的典故,來自六祖慧能(683-713)與岳南懷讓初見時的對話問答﹕

    (慧能)祖問﹕「什麼處來?」

    (懷讓)祖曰﹕「嵩山來。」

    祖問﹕「是什麼物恁麼來?」師無語,遂經八載,忽然有省,乃白祖曰﹕「說似一物即不中。」

    註59

      「是什麼物恁麼來」這個使懷讓花了八年時間才得領悟的問題,涉及了佛教的終極實相,而對道元而言,它涉及「悉有即佛性」的問題。換言之,悉有或佛性「是什麼物?(What am I?  Who am I?)又「恁麼來」(Whence

     

    228頁

    do I come)?佛性的「什麼物」、「什麼處」是不可名,不可得,不可客體化,因此道元用了一連串的否定詞來描述─非有無之有、非始有、非本有、非妄有等。這是種超越主體性的佛性觀,因此道元說﹕「盡界都無客塵,直下更無第二人」, 60也就是說盡法界本來無一物,無一法可見、可得,直下更無主、客體對立的存在(更無第二人)。但這並非意味要把佛性全然的否定,所以道元說佛性「非妄緣起有,遍界不曾藏故。」 61佛性非因妄緣而有,而是猶如《佛性論》所說的﹕「佛性者,即人法二空所顯真如。」 62真如體遍一切,因之「遍界不曾藏。」

      為了避免因此對佛性產生實體性泛有的誤解,道元緊接著警示說﹕

    遍界不曾藏者,非必遍界是有也。遍界我有,則外道邪見也。(悉有) 非本有之有,今故。非始起有,不受一塵故,…應知悉有中眾生快便難逢也,會取悉有如是,則悉有其體脫落也。

    註63

      佛性是超越時間,𨧤𨧤今的,故非本有、非始有,它又是超越空間,遍一切處,但不是外道「無我計我」的我。佛性是否為一種有我論,此問題自古以來即爭議不斷,從《楞伽經》中大慧菩薩提出對如來藏的質疑, 64到現代佛學學者的「批判佛教」對本覺思想的批判, 65都是針對此疑點而起。

     

    229

    道元當然亦注意到此問題,因而強調「佛性悉有」非有我論。道元認為若能會取如是的悉有義,則可「透體脫落」無罣無礙,道元稱之為「快便難逢」,比喻如下坡行者,雖不用力,猶可快速急行。

    2、對佛性誤解的駁斥

      為了突顯對佛性的誤解,道元指出有些人像先尼外道的有我論一樣,將佛性視為覺知覺了的主體。先尼(senika)的中譯是「有軍」或「勝軍」,是佛在世時,主張有我論的外道。道元駁斥說﹕

    聞佛性言,而學者多如先尼外道我邪計也…徒謂風火動著心意識為佛性之覺知覺了。誰道佛性有覺知覺了?覺者知者設使諸佛,而佛性非覺知覺了也。 註66

    先尼外道誤以為隨風吹火燃而動的心意識作用,就是佛性的覺知覺了之認知作用,而且認為此靈知常住不變,雖身相壞而靈知不壞。道元在《正法眼藏‧即心是佛》篇引用《景德傳燈錄》中南陽慧忠與一學僧的問答,作為駁斥先尼的覺知說的例子。有位來自南方的學僧前往參訪慧忠,並告知南方諸師對佛性的暸解,他們認為眾生具有見聞覺知之性,而此性能「揚眉瞬目,去來運用」,離此之外,更無別佛,而眾生肉身有生滅,但心性無始以來未曾生滅,亦即身是無常,其性常也。對這樣的說法,慧忠駁斥說﹕

    若然者,與彼先尼外道無有差別。彼云﹕「我此身中有一神性,此性能知痛癢,身壞之時,神則出去。如舍被燒,舍主出去,舍則無常,舍主常矣,審如此者邪知莫辨…若以見聞覺知為佛性者,淨名不云法離見聞覺知,若行見聞覺知,是則見聞覺知,求非法也。 註67

    先尼外道認為人人身中有一「神性」,此神性有見聞覺知的作用,在身體滅壞時,此神性則了了不變,歷劫常住,而身體生滅的現象,只不過「如

    230

    龍換骨,似蛇脫皮,人出故宅」。這樣的神我論,不是佛性的真義,換言之,佛性不是常住的神我。然而佛性到底是什麼呢?此處道元只用了一連串否定詞的描述(非有無之有、非始有、非本有、非有、非妄有、非妄緣起等等),除了強調佛性必是悉有,悉有即是佛性之外,沒有較明確正面的定義。 68《佛性論》中對佛性的定義和對外道的評破或可當為參考。 69

      道元駁斥另一個對佛性的誤解,即是將佛性視為草木種子,他說﹕「有一類謂﹕佛性如草木種子,法雨潤時,有芽莖生長,枝葉華果茂,果實更懷於種子,如是見解,則凡夫情量」。 70這種論調即是將佛性視為「因中有果論」。《金七十論》中指出衛世師(Vaiwesika)主張因中定有果,其理由有五﹕1.無不可作故﹕若物「無造作不得成,如從沙出油,若物有作如壓麻出油」。2.必須取因故﹕求物必須取物因,如求酥酪,必須取自乳,若因(乳)中無果(酥酪)性,豈不取水亦可得酥酪?3.一切不生故﹕若因中無果,則一切物能生一切物,如草木沙石能生金銀等,事實非如此,故知因中有果。4.能作所作故﹕譬如陶師備足用具,將泥土(而不是草木)作成瓶等,不從草木作瓶盆,故自因中有自性。5.隨因有果故﹕譬如麥芽必隨麥種,若因中無果,果必不似因,則麥種可生豆芽,然事實不然,故知因中有果。 71

      由於一般人理解佛正覺由佛性而生,因此誤以為與外道的因中有果論一樣,《涅槃經》中就說如果有人說因中先定有果,此人為「魔伴黨,繫屬魔」,因為諸法無自性,不但不可說因中定有果,亦不可說因中定無果、定有無果、定非有非無果。 72

    3、佛性與時節

      在澄清佛性非能覺知的神我,亦非像因中有果論的草本種子之後,道元接著註釋了很重要的「佛性」與「時節」的關係。他說﹕

     

    231

       佛言﹕欲知佛性義,當觀時節因緣,時節若至,佛性現前。 註73

      此段經文原出自《涅槃經》,佛陀對師子吼菩薩解釋佛性「三因」(生因,緣因,了因)和「時節」(過去有,現在有,未來有)的關係時說﹕「欲見佛性,應當觀察時節形色,是故我說一切眾悉有佛性。」 74百丈懷海禪師曾稍加引申。根據《景德傳燈錄》卷九〈大溈靈佑章〉所載,一日靈佑隨侍在百丈身旁,百丈問是誰,回曰﹕「靈佑」。百丈云﹕「汝撥鑪中有火否?」靈佑撥云無火。百丈躬起,深撥得少火,舉示之云﹕「此不是火?」靈佑於是發悟,並禮謝陳其所解,百丈說其乃暫時岐路,並且引《涅槃經》曰﹕

    經云﹕欲見佛性,當觀時節因緣,時節既至,如迷忽悟,如妄忽憶方省己物,不從他得。故祖師云﹕悟了同未悟,無心亦無法,只是無虛妄凡聖等心,本來心法元自備足。 註75

     

      值得注意的是以上引文中的「時節既至」是用「既」字,但道元在〈佛性篇〉所引用的是「時節若至」的「若」字。道元可能引自《聯燈會要》的〈大溈靈佑章〉。雖然此章同樣是記載大溈靈佑,但用語與《景德傳燈錄》略不同﹕

       欲識佛性義,當觀時節因緣,時節「若」至,其理自彰。便知己物,不從外得。 註76

    道元在詮釋此引句時,除了將「其理自彰」,改為「佛性現前」之外,還將時節「若」至,解釋成《景德傳燈錄》所用的時節「既」至, 77以表達他自己對佛性存在之時間性的特有詮釋。他首先指出古今凡夫之輩往往妄想「時節若至」之道,認為要證得佛性得向未來期待佛性現前之時節,「如是修行

     

    232

    來地,自然逢佛現前之時節。時節不至,則參師問法,辦道功夫焉,不現前也。」 78道元指出如此之輩無論如何努力參究辦道,只能「突返紅塵,空守雲漢。」他還稱這些人屬天然外道之流類。

      道元認為佛性不是存在於未來,等待適當的時節而現前,所以他說﹕「若至即既至之謂。時節若至,則佛性不至也」,而應該是「時節既至,則是佛性現前」,也就是「其理自彰」或所謂「現成公案」。對道元而言,每一剎那瞬間的「時」與萬法(每一事物事相)的「有」是相即現成的,所以他在〈辦道話〉就有如是說﹕

    一人一時坐禪,諸法相冥,諸時圓通故,無盡法界中去來現,作常恆佛化道事也。彼彼共一等同修也、同證也。 註79

      在道元「諸法相冥」、「諸時圓通」的空間和時間觀之中,一人(即人人)一時(即任何時節)坐禪修行時,即是等於在無盡法界中的過去、現在、未來,恆常作佛事,彼此一等同修同證。這樣的坐禪即是「修證一等」的坐禪、「本證妙修」的坐禪、「身心脫落」的坐禪。佛性就是在這種圓通的空間和時間中當下「既至現前」的,而不是等待未來某一時節若「至」才能現前的。換言之,佛性的體證是「有即時‧即時有」的現成公案,佛性與證悟的同時性,在當下的每時每刻由修證者「常恆」地經歷和實現著。

      因此,道元的「有」「時」是一體同時呈現的,而不是先有個「時」間的存在,然後在這個「時」間出現某種「有」,例如,並非有一個名為「春天」的時間,然後花卉於此時間內開放。事實上,正確的暸解應該是花卉開放的當下即是春天。再者,離開變化不斷的世間相,即沒有「時間」的存在。 80所以道元說﹕

    山(者)時也,海(者)時也。(若)不有「時」,不可有山海。(若)不可為山海,而今不「有時」。時若壞,則山河壞,時若不壞,則山

     

    233

    河不壞也。 註81

     

    離開無常的萬法,時間即不存在,離開時間,萬法亦不存在,故道元強調「即時有也,有悉為時也」,有與時成為一體,這就是道元要表達的「時節既至,佛性現前」的意義,不但悉有即佛性,一切時間都是佛性,一切時間都是修行,因此,一切修行都是佛性(修證一如),故道元總結說﹕

    若至猶言既至,時節若至,則佛性不至也,然則時節既至,則佛性現前也。或理自彰也,大凡時節之不若至(的)時節未有也,佛性之不現前(的)佛性不有也。 註82

    道元把時間未來的「若至」視同時間當下的「既至」,每一時節都是當下現成的,因此他否認有不「若至」(既至)的時間,也沒有在每一時節不現前的佛性。

      道元的時間觀中,不但強調時間在每一時節的獨特性,也指出其圓通性,他說﹕

    有時有經歷功德,謂(自)今日經歷明日,今日經歷昨日,昨日經歷今日,今日經歷今日,明日經歷明日,「經歷」其「時」功德故。古今(之)時,非重非積。而青原(行思禪師)時也,黃檗(希運禪師)時也…自它既時故,修證則諸「時」也。 註83

    依據道元所說,「有時」有「經歷」的作用,但與一般人所暸解的自昨日至今日、自今日至明日的「單向流逝」 84之時間觀不同。道元的「有時」可以圓通循環地「經歷」時間,即不但有單向流逝的經歷,而且有「雙向流轉」的作用,可自未來再經歷現在,自現在經歷過去,或自未來經歷未來,過去經歷過去等等,因此可以說這樣的「有時」是在任何時間,任何地方都是當下現成的。

      在這種時間觀之下的佛性不是「靜態」(static)的實體性存在,而是「動

     

    234

    態」(dynamic)且一再現前的證悟歷程,也就是說修行與證悟(佛性)不斷地同時相互強化(reinforce)。所以道元說修行具足遍界現成力量,又說﹕「自他既時故,修證則諸時也。」 85在道元圓通的時間觀中,物物不相礙,時時亦不相礙,因此,「有同時發心,有同心發時,修行成道亦復如是。」 86

    4、有佛性

      佛性與眾生的關係一直是佛性論中非常重要的問題。有些經論或祖師很明確地主張一切眾生「有佛性」,有些則強調「無佛性」,道元在〈佛性篇〉中舉出十一位祖師為例子。以下首先探討道元對其他祖師所主張的「有佛性」、「無佛性」的詮釋,然後再詳論道元自己提出的「無常佛性」義。

      馬鳴菩薩的「佛性海」和鹽官齊安的「一切眾生有佛性」屬於「有佛性」說的例子。依據《景德傳燈錄》卷一所載,一位名為迦毘摩羅的外道,自恃其神通力,前來挑戰馬鳴尊者。馬鳴問他有多大神力。迦毘摩羅說﹕「我化巨海極為小事」。馬鳴又問他﹕「汝化性海得否?」迦毘摩羅不知何謂性海,馬鳴解釋說﹕

    山河大地皆依(性海)建立,三昧六通由茲發現。 註87

    道元將原典所載「性海」改成「佛性海」。原義是否有「佛性海」的意思,值得商榷。不過,道元將佛性與法性視為同義語,因此他引申性海為佛性海。他更進一步解釋說﹕

    然此山河大地,皆佛性海也。「皆依建立」者,建立(的)正當恁麼時,是山河大地也。既謂皆依建立,當知佛性海形如是。見山河則見佛性,見佛性則見驢腮馬嘴,非更可拘內外中間。恁麼則會取(或不會取),皆依「全依」也、「依全」也。 註88

     

    235

      道元的意思是依佛性海建立時的山河大地本身,即是佛性的現成,不僅「有」「時」不二,性相亦不二,所以見山河即見佛性。反之,見佛性即見山河,甚至於驢腮馬嘴等萬事萬物,完全突破了二元觀的對立,達到時間和空間、主體和客體、性和相的完全相即相入,而沒有所謂山河驢馬是外,佛性海是內,或佛性是中間的分別思量,亦超越了「全依」、「依全」的相對。「全依」指「所依」,即佛性所依歸的全體存在,此處亦可言「相」。「依全」指「能依」,即依歸全體存在的佛性。總之,在建立正當恁麼時,無能依、所依之分別對立。

      對「三昧六通由茲發現」一句,道元解釋說﹕

    「三昧六通由茲發現」者,應知諸三昧發現、未現,同皆依佛性。全六通(之)由茲、不由茲,俱皆依佛性也。六神通者,非但阿笈摩教(阿含經)云六神通。六者,前三三後三三,謂六神通波羅蜜。勿參究(六神通為)「明明百草頭,明明祖師意」,如滯累六神通則罣礙佛性海朝宗者也。 註89

    由於挑戰馬鳴的迦毘摩羅執著神通力,所以馬鳴教示他,不管三昧和六神通,在發現或未現時,都必須依佛性直探真諦,而不是如外道或阿含經中所講的神力。 90道元指出真正的六神通是六神通波羅蜜, 91而「六」者,指「前三三後三三」,此句出自《聯燈會要》卷二十九的〈無著文喜章〉中文殊與無著之對話。 92道元也提示六神通非「明明百草頭,明明祖師意」 93的境界。

     

    236

     

    「明明百草頭」喻指物質世界的個別事物,「明明祖師意」則是指祖師証悟到的真如,兩者相即相入,如同山河大地與佛性海的性相不二一樣,如此的佛性義,不是一般的神通力或三昧可比擬的。

      道元所舉的「悉有佛性」的另一個例子是鹽官齊安國師,齊安國師為馬祖道一門下的尊宿,曾示眾曰﹕「一切眾生有佛性」。其實,許多經論和祖師都主張「有佛性」論,道元為何特別舉齊安為例,不得而知。不過,顯然的是他借用齊安為例,再次解釋他對「一切眾生有佛性」的看法。道元特別解釋「一切眾生」的意義﹕

    今佛道云「一切眾生」者,有心者皆眾生,心是眾生故。無心者應同眾生,眾生是心故。然心皆是眾生也,眾生皆是有佛性也。草木國土是心也,心故眾生也,(既為)眾生故,有佛性也。日月星辰是心也,(既為)心故(即)眾生也,眾生故有佛性也。國師道取「有佛性」,其如是矣。 註94

    傳統上「眾生」指有生命或有情識的「有情」,而道元把「一切眾生」包括草木國土、日月星辰等物質世界的「無情」。對道元而言,既然一切眾生有佛性,無情自然亦有佛性。至於為何「無情」也是「眾生」,道元認為一切有「心」者都是眾生固然理所當然,但無心者也應是「眾生」,因為「心是眾生,眾生是心」。道元所指的「心」不是一般凡夫、外道、三乘、五乘所說的「道業依正不一」的個體的心識作用,而是一切存在(悉有)的全體顯現,所以道元才能說「今佛道(一乘道)云一切眾生(有情、非情)有佛性」。若非如是,「則非佛道道取有佛性義」。道元對「心」的這樣解釋,把「心」、「悉有」、「佛性」、「法性」全融會在身心脫落的自然現成中,於是一眾生發心時,即全體眾生發心,一眾生成道,全體有情、無情同時成道,這也就是他在《正法眼藏‧即心是佛篇》所說的「一心一切法,一切法一心。」 95

    道元把主體(修行的有情)與客體(無情的世界)的相即不二再與其不二的「有時」觀融合,完全達到了時間和空間的圓融不二,他說﹕

    設使一剎那(時間),發心修行,即心是佛。設使一極微(空間),發心修證,即心是佛也。設使無量劫,發心修證,即心是佛也。設使

     

    237

    一念中,發心修證,即心是佛也。設使半拳裡發心修證,即心是佛也。 註96

     

    道元擴展眾生(包括一切有情和無情)的含義,再與佛性相結合,即成為他特有的「悉有即佛性」論,這也就是他說的悉有之一悉即稱作眾生,「正當恁麼時,眾生內外,即為佛性之悉有。」 97

      然而,「無情有性」、「無情成佛」並非道元的創見,而是淵源於中國佛教。中國佛性論的發展自大乘《大般涅槃經》傳入後,從道生高唱一闡提成佛開始,及至唐代天台宗湛然(711-782)主張「無情有性」,可謂發展到極點。在中國宗派中,最早提出無情有性的是三論宗的吉藏(549-623)。他在《大乘玄論》中,以理內理外、通門別門等不同層次論證有情和無情的佛性的有無問題。吉藏認為真如理內「一切諸法依正不二,以依正不二故,眾生有佛性,則草木亦有佛性……若眾生成佛時,一切眾生亦得成佛。」 98不過,吉藏稱這種說法是就「通門」而言,若就「別門」而言,則不然,他說﹕「眾生有心迷故,得有覺悟之理,草木無心故不迷,寧得有覺悟之義?」 99從真如理的「理佛性」而言,吉藏認為草木成佛說,自然毫問題,但是就「行佛性」而言,因草木無心,故不迷,不迷則無覺,猶如有睡夢才有夢醒,無睡夢則無夢醒也。值得注意的是雖然吉藏和道元都主張無情有性,但吉藏的理由是在真如理中,諸法平等、依正不二,而道元的理由是「無情有心」。吉藏認為無情一定要有「心」才能有佛性。換言之,他主張無情雖無心,但仍有佛性,但是因為無心,無情不能覺悟成佛。吉藏和道元二人在此所指的「心」,意義顯然有所不同。吉藏所指「草木無心」的「心」顯然偏重一般虛妄知覺的心識作用(因此他說「草木無心故不迷」),而道元所指的「心」是指一切萬法當下的現成、身心脫落作佛的心、即心是佛的真心。不過,道元在〈佛性篇〉中,對於無情是否能成佛,沒有特別加以著墨。

      吉藏之後,許多的祖師也都主張無情有性。例如法藏在《探玄記》說﹕「若三乘教,真如之性,在情非情,開覺佛性,唯局有情」。 100法藏是根據《涅槃經》中所說的「非佛性者,所謂一切牆壁瓦石無情之物,離如是無情

     

    238

    之物,是名佛性」, 101但是若依圓教而言,則法藏認為「佛性及性起,皆通依正」,因此,無情應有佛性。法藏的佛性看法,並非全然否定無情有性,不過,法藏的色心互融的圓教境界中,雖然許佛性通於有情及無情,但是若就積極性的緣因,了因二覺佛性而言,還是不許「無情成佛」的。

      全力提倡無情成佛,並加以哲理性論證的是天台中興祖師荊溪湛然。他在《金剛錍》中,根據天台宗一念三千的性具思想,於性具中點示「三因(正因、緣因、了因)體遍」的圓融佛性義,即他說的「本有三種,三理元遍,達性成修,修三亦遍」, 102這意思是說眾生心中本具足三因佛性,此三因能生果上的三德(性德 、智德、斷德),故名為「種」,然而無始以來眾生處於無明煩惱業苦中,因此三因佛性只能說是理性三因,而非覺性三因。不過,此三理佛性,元遍一切,當眾生達性成修時,修三亦遍。換言之,在性則全修成性,起修則全性成修,性三既遍,修三亦應如此。由於「性遍」,三千大千世界無不在理,故言無情有性;由於「修遍」,三千果成,故可以說無情亦能成佛,也就是說緣、了二因亦應遍及無情,所以湛然說﹕「一草一本一礫一塵,各一佛性,各一因果,具足緣了」。 103

      總之,道元的一切眾生、(包括有情及無情)有佛性的主張,基本上乃延續中國佛教的佛性論,不過在論證上的強調點有所不同。中國佛教祖師們論「一切眾生悉有佛性」時,除了定義「一切眾生」之外,都著重在「一切眾生」與「佛性」的關係,也就是將重點放在述語「有」,以說明為什麼一切眾生「有」佛性,如此則無形中將一切眾生與佛性二分。道元的論證方式則不然,他的佛性論的前題是將一切眾生(悉有)與佛性融合在一起,因此對道元而言,並不是一切眾生「有」佛性,而是一切眾生「即」佛性。所以他說「道一切眾生有佛性,有佛性之有,當脫落。」 104換言之,必須超越二元的互屬關係,而使之完全相即不二,才能達到悉有即佛性,佛性即悉有。

    5、無佛性

      相對於一切眾生有佛性,有些祖師卻稱一切眾生無佛性,而無佛性意義為何呢?道元舉了四個例子,並加上自己的詮釋。第一和第二個例子是四祖

     

    239

    道信和五祖弘忍、弘忍和六祖惠能之間有關佛性問答﹕

    祖(道信)見師(弘忍),問曰﹕「汝何姓?」

    師答曰﹕「姓即有,不是常姓。」

    祖 云﹕「是何姓?」

    師答曰﹕「是佛姓。」

    祖 云﹕「汝無佛性。」

    師答曰﹕「佛性空故,所以言無。」 註105

      對五祖弘忍的回答「姓即有,不是常姓」,道元解讀為「有即姓,非常姓,常姓不是即有也。」他很有創意地將「姓即有」反轉成「有即姓」(悉有即佛性),但是此「姓」(性)當然不是一般所說的李、陳、王等姓氏,所以道元又將弘忍的回答倒轉過來說﹕「常姓」不是「即有」。對弘忍的回答「是佛性」,道元解釋說不但「是」即「佛性」,「不是」之時也是「佛性」,再次強調佛性的超越時間性。至於道信對弘忍說「汝無佛性」的意義如何?道元加以註解說:

    四祖云﹕「汝無佛性。」謂道取者,開演汝非誰。一任汝,而無佛性也,應知當學,而今如何時節無佛性也?佛頭無佛性也乎?佛向上無佛性乎?勿逼塞七通,勿摸索八達,或修習無佛性者,一時三昧也。應問取﹕佛性成佛時,無佛性也乎?佛性發心時,無佛性也乎? 註106

    道元認為四祖對弘忍說「汝無佛性」的意思是﹕汝不是特定的某個誰,雖說任汝為汝,卻無佛性。對這樣的說法,道元認為修學者應參究的是「究竟於什麼時節而無佛性?」是否在登「佛頭」頂時(喻證悟時),無佛性?或是更在超越佛時,無佛性呢?無佛性的含義是「七通八達」的,切勿逼塞或胡亂摸索,應修習能體證無佛性意義的三昧,更應問取、道取佛性是在成佛時無佛性,或是在發菩提心時無佛性?此處道元再度把佛性的存在與他特有的時間觀配合在一起,而要修學者參究佛性的時節。

      至於對五祖的回答﹕「佛性空故,所以言無」,道元解釋說「空非是無」,換言之,佛性真空的意義,並非一般人所暸解的與「有」相對的斷滅「無」,

    240

    所以他說真正的「空」,不是「色即是空」的空,因為它是與色對立的空。真正的佛性空是《涅槃經》中所說﹕「佛性者,即是第一義空。第一義空名為智慧…中道者名為佛性」。 107如此的第一義空「非強硬要色為空,非分別空而造作為色,應空是空之空。所謂空是空之空者,乃是空裡一片石也 108」。 109空雖是真空而終不離色,故言「空裡一片石」,即所謂的「真空妙有」,也就是道元所說的「空故不云空,無故不云無。」

    第二個道元所舉言「無佛性」的例子是五祖弘忍與六祖惠能之間的問答﹕

    第六祖曹溪大鑒(惠能)禪師,昔年參黃梅山。

    五祖問﹕「汝自何處來?」

    六祖曰﹕「嶺南人。」

    五祖云﹕「來求何事?」

    六祖曰﹕「求作佛。」

    五祖云﹕「嶺南人無佛性,奈何作佛?」 註110

    對「嶺南人無佛性」一語的含義,道元再度展現他獨特的解讀法。他說此語不是意指嶺南人沒有佛性,也不是說嶺南人有佛性,而是說「嶺南人」即「無佛性」,而「奈何作佛者」不是指質疑「怎能作佛」,是指「期望作什麼佛」。根據一般語法,「嶺南人無佛性」的「無」是當述詞用,但道元卻把它與「佛性」合在一起當名詞。其實,道元要表達的是嶺南(或任何人)要擺脫自己究竟有沒有佛性的二分想法,因為眾生本身就是佛性。所以道元說:「佛性也者,非成佛以前具足,(亦非)成佛以後具足,佛性必與成佛同參也」。 111他強調在見聞佛法之初,眾生固然即「無佛性」,但從善知識或從經卷學習之後,眾生還是「無佛性」。六祖為求作佛而就教於五祖,而六祖不以其他善巧教示,而以「嶺南人無佛性」一句話「作佛於六祖」。因此,不能參究「無佛性」的真正意義,即不得「作佛也」,反過來說,即「無佛性正當恁麼時,

    241

    則作佛也」。 112總之,道元要教示的是﹕對於「無佛性」的暸解,不要自陷於「有無」二元對立的「無」中,而是將「有無之無暫且擱置」而直取「無無」之絕對不二的「無」。

      道元所舉第三個言及無佛性的例子是溈山靈佑禪師(771-853)。他說﹕

    釋尊說道者﹕一切眾生悉有佛性,大溈說道者﹕一切眾生無佛性也。有無言理遙可殊,道得當不可疑。然一切眾生無佛性,長佛道也」。

    鹽官有佛道,雖似與古佛出一隻手,猶是應一條柱兩人舁。今大溈不然,應一條柱杖吞二人。註113

      引句中道元的意思是無論說有佛性或無佛性,所言之理雖各有殊異,如「道得」的話,當不可疑其各自之理,但比較上而言,祖師所說的一切眾生「無佛性」,在佛道上更見長(暗示比佛陀講得更好)。他舉了一個比喻說﹕鹽官齊安國師所主張的眾生有佛性,雖然與古佛(釋迦)同時分別伸出一隻手,但是還是屬於「一條柱兩人舁」的層次(即佛性柱杖,由佛陀及齊安兩人舁),但溈山主張的無佛性則是「一條柱吞二人」(即無佛性柱杖,吞卻佛陀及齊安兩人),其高下殊劣由此可見。道元甚至於更嚴厲地批判有佛性說﹕「若有佛性,則應是魔黨,將來黨子一枚(將魔子附於眾生上)」。 114

      道元又再次強調既然「佛性是佛性,眾生是眾生」,並非眾生本來就具足一個有實體性的佛性,也不是有一個實體性的佛性存在於外,眾生向外馳求而後始得。因此道元引百丈禪師說﹕「說眾生有佛性,亦謗佛法僧。說眾生無佛性,亦謗佛法僧。」 115然而,道元舉百丈如此雙遣佛性的說法,並不是為了全然否定佛性,所以他又說﹕

       然則云有佛性,云無佛性,俱作謗焉。雖作謗,非不可道取矣。註116

     

    242

    雖然言有、無佛性都作謗,但並非不可取道參究,正如清涼國師所說的「失意則四句便成四謗,得旨則四句即是四德。」然而,如何才能「得旨」呢?且看道元如何挑戰大溈﹕

    復應向大溈道﹕雖設使道得「一切眾生無佛性」,而(汝)不道「一切佛性無眾生」,不道「一切佛性無佛性」,況「一切諸佛無佛性」,夢也未見在也,試舉看! 註117

    除了可以說眾生無佛性之外,道元提問大溈是否也有別種解讀佛性與眾生的關係的方法,如說「一切佛性無眾生」、「一切佛性無佛性」、甚至於「一切諸佛無佛性」。雖然看似道元在玩文字排列組合的遊戲,其實,他的用意是在強調破除佛性與眾生的二元化、和實體化的佛性觀。道元雙遣有佛性和無佛性,而他自己的佛性觀又是如何呢?就是他主張的「無常佛性」。

    6、無常佛性

      道元引六祖惠能對門人行昌志徹禪師的開示說﹕

       無常者,即佛性也。有常者,即善惡一切諸法分別心也。 註118

    志徹對這樣的開示,向六祖質疑有違經教,因為經說佛性是常,善惡諸法是無常。六祖解釋說﹕

    佛性若常,更說什麼善惡諸法,乃至窮劫無有一人發菩提心者,故吾說無常,正是佛說真常之道也。又一切諸法若無常者,即物物皆有自性容受生死。而真常性有不遍之處,故吾說常者,正是佛說真無常義也。佛比為凡夫外道執於邪常,諸二乘人於常計無常共成八倒故, 註119於涅槃了義教中,破彼偏見,而顯說真常、真我、真淨。 註120

     

    243

    由上面引句六祖自己對佛性無常義的解釋,可以看出完全是承襲《大般涅槃經》的佛性說。 121《涅槃經》為對治凡夫外道誤執佛性為常住不易的有見,而強調佛性的無常義,但是另一方面為了破二乘人於常計無常的滅見而說真常。六祖所說的「善惡一切諸法分別心」的「有常」,是指一般凡夫外道的有見,而佛性的「無常」是「真無常」,即真常。

      道元認為六祖所說的無常,確實非外道二乘等人所能測度,他更進一步解釋說﹕「無常常自說著、行著、證著無常,則皆應無常也。」 122換言之,真正的無常,即是無論是言說、修持、或體證無常,都應是無常,就如「常聖是無常,常凡是無常」,否則若是凡夫永為凡夫(常凡),聖者永為聖者(常聖),則佛性不成。所以道元說:「常凡聖者,則不應佛性」。至於「常」的意義,道元說﹕「常者未轉也。未轉也者,沒變能斷,設化所斷,而不必拘去來蹤跡,所以常也。」 123

      「能斷」是指般若空智,「所斷」是指無始煩惱。常則未轉,而未轉是指既使昇化到證悟層次的般若空智,或處於凡情的無始煩惱,都與迷悟無涉,因為智慧常住為智慧,煩惱常住為煩惱,這是一般人所暸解的「常住未轉」,但佛性並非如此。相反的,可以把道元的「常者未轉也」,引申成為「無常者轉也」。也就是說要在無常不斷轉換的動態中去體悟佛性,因為基本上「無常本身就是佛性」,同時「佛性在本質上就是無常」, 124(佛性即無常、無常即佛性)。就如道元所說的﹕

    然由於草木叢林無常,即佛性也。人物身心無常,是佛性也。國土山河無常,是佛性也。則阿耨多羅三藐三菩提是佛性,故無常也。大般涅槃是無常,故佛性也。諸二乘小見及經論師三藏等,可驚疑怖畏此六祖道。若驚疑者,魔外(道)類也。 註125

    世間法無論是草木、國土、山河、人物身心等皆從緣而起,故無常,正因為其無常,其本質上可以與非實體性的佛性相契,就如《百門義海》所說的「覺塵及一切法從緣無性,名為佛性」,故言有情與無情皆有佛性。反過來說,

    244

    阿耨多羅三藐三菩提是佛性的證成,亦與無常相契,因為佛性的證悟,無非就是對無常的如實體證。總而言之,道元所暸解的「無常佛性」是有佛性和無佛性的統一。賢首法藏在解釋「三性同異義」時,所說的下列這段話,可以做為道元「無常佛性」義的註解﹕

    聖說真如為凝然者,此是隨緣成染淨時,恆作染淨而不失自體,是即不異無常之常,名不思議常,非謂不作諸法如情所謂之凝然也。若謂不作諸法而凝然者,是情所得,故即失真常,以彼真常不異無常之常。不異無常之常,皆出於情外,故名真常。是故經曰﹕「不染而染者,明常作無常。染而不染者,明作無常時不失常也。」 註126

    引句中法藏解釋的真如凝然是依性宗的說法,顯然與相宗所主張有所不同。不過,他對「常」、「無常」、「真常」的暸解顯然與道元類似。道元所主張的「無常佛性」,是法藏所謂的真如隨緣成染而不失自體,但這個自體不是出於一般凡情所認識的「常」,反而「是即不異無常」的真常。在染而不染的不變情況下,佛性(真如)在無常中不失其「常性」,在不染而染的隨緣情況下,佛性於「常」中顯現其「無常」性。在常與無常,有與無的融通和統一中,「無常佛性」不是靜態的實體化存在,而是動態的「現成公案」,就如阿部正雄所說﹕「對道元而言,無常本身就是教(preaching)無常、修(practicing)無常和證(realizing)無常,其實也就是教佛性,修佛性和證佛性。」 127

    四、道元的修證觀

      無疑地道元是日本佛教最傑出的哲學家,但是更重要的,道元也是他自己所暸解的哲理的實踐者。他的修證觀是「修證一等」、「本證妙修」的修證觀,主要是建立在他的佛性觀上。另外,佛教的中心議題,諸如悉有與佛性、迷與悟、生與死、有與無、常與無常等都反應在他的修證觀中。

      修證一等的修證觀源自道元在比叡山時產生的一大疑團,即眾生如果「本自法身法性成者」,為什麼還須要發心修行呢?道元的這個問題預設了一個前提,即眾生的具真如法性(或曰佛性)中已「實現證得」(realized)

     

    245頁

    了所有成佛的內涵(功德),所以不必再去做修行的功夫。但是與此前提矛盾的是事實上在現實的世間,眾生還是妄染的眾生,而不是清淨的佛,顯然地,眾生還須要修行。反過來說,眾生的修行如果有絕對必要,則佛性(或曰法性)變成一個外在客體性的追求目標,如此又如何可說眾生本具佛性。 128因此,對年青的道元產生了修與證、修證與佛性如何融通的問題。

      要暸解道元的修證觀,必須從其歷史背景中探索。道元時代的日本天台宗發展出的是本覺的修證觀,其主張眾生因有本覺,故無有修行的必要。但是這顯然不能解決道元的疑團,於是他遠渡中土尋覓明師。根據《寶慶記》,道元請教如淨說﹕

    道元拜問﹕「參學古今佛祖之勝躅,初心發明之時,雖似有道,集眾開法之時,如無佛法。又初發心時,雖似無所悟,開法演道之時,頗有超古之志氣。然則,為用初心得道,為用後心得道?」

    如淨誨云:「佛佛祖祖正傳云:不但初心,不離初心。為甚恁麼?若但初心得道,菩薩初發心,便應是佛,是乃不可也。若無初心,云何得有第二、第三心,第二、第三法。然則,後以初為本,初以後為期。 註129

    從以上對道元的誨示,可見如淨不主張如《華嚴經》所說的菩薩初發心,即成正覺的說法,而強調修行的必要,亦即否定了因本覺故無須修行的天台本覺門的修証觀,也否定了真言宗的「即身即佛,是身作佛,無經時劫修行」 130的說法。

      承襲如淨的修証觀,再加上自己整個「身心脫落」的開悟經驗,使道元開展出修証不二的修証觀。他在〈辦道話〉篇說:「是法,雖人人分上豐具,而未修不現,不証無得,放則盈手,一多際乎。語則滿口,縱橫無窮。」 131人人分上本具的佛性妙法,不像外道所妄執的自性天然,因此未修不現,不証無得。然而,這並不意謂道元認為修証是前後法。對道元而言,「修」是直下的加工,「証」是圓融的任運。在無窮的加工中,是「法」任運圓融。

    246

    同時,在任運圓融的証悟中,妙修透體。這就是道元所謂的「証則行無懈時」,反過來說,亦即是「行則証任運時」。

    道元在下列的引句更清楚闡釋他修証一等的修証觀:

    夫謂修証非一,即外道見也。佛法修証是一等也。今証上修故,初心辨道,即本証全體也。故授修行用心,教無修外待証思,應直指本証也。既修之証,則証無際,証之修,則修無始也。是以釋迦如來,迦葉尊者,共受用証上修,達磨大師,大鑑高祖,同引轉讓上修,佛法住持皆如是。既有不離証(的)修,我等幸單傳一分妙修。初心辨道,即得一分本証於無為地,可識為令不離修証不染汙,佛祖頻教誨修行不可悠緩。放下妙修,則本証滿手中,出身本証,則妙修行通身。 註132

    引句中,最重要的觀念是「証上修」,「修上証」。因為道元認為的修行不是與証悟對立的修行,而是「証之修」,如此與本証不二的妙修是無始的、超越時間的。再者,道元說「出身本証」的這種「妙修行通身」,即是所謂的加工直下任運圓融,是超越空間的。因為修証超越時間和空間,因此道元說「一人一時坐禪,諸法相冥,諸時圓通。」任何人在任何時間修持坐禪三昧時,當下「遍法界皆為佛印,盡虛空悉為悟,乃至諸法皆証會正覺,萬物共使用佛身。」 133這樣的結果即是建立在道元所強調的「佛性必與成佛同修、同証」、「修証一等」的前題上。

      道元「修証一等」的修証觀的最大意義,乃是它消除了修行與証悟,始覺與本覺之間二元對立的矛盾。在成佛的「進程」(process)中,佛性是不可或缺的「先天依據」,而修行是不可或缺的「條件」(condition)。從始覺論的觀點看,在時間和空間範圍內的修行是成佛過程的「基石」(ground),而佛性變成只是導引修行的「標地」(sign)。 134換言之,它預設有一個從修行到証悟的過程。如此,則造成修行與証悟在時間上有前後二

    247

    元之分別。再者,如果佛性僅被視為「標地」,就會產生成佛之必然性(先天依據)何在的問題。

      相反地,從本覺論的觀點看,超越時間的本覺(佛性)不但是成佛的「基石」(先天依據),更是証悟的實現,如此作為証悟條件的修行就失去了其必要性。顯然地,始覺門和本覺門都可稱為「修証兩橛觀」, 135前者是修而待証,亦即「修必向証」的修証觀,後者是証而待修,亦即「証必由修」。無論是由修向証証必待修,甚至於証不須修,都意味著修証之二元,因此產生本覺與始覺,証悟和修行之間的對立和矛盾,此即是困擾年青道元的問題所在。

      道元打破此二元對立的方法是打通修行和証悟的時間因果關係,他把修行的出發點從因位轉到果位,因此他可以說真正的修行「非但因地修証而已,乃是果位之修証也」, 136同理,他把証悟的終點從果位轉到因位,因此他可以說真正的証悟,非但是果位之証悟,亦是因位之証悟。如此互為因果的修証,不斷地相互加強循環不斷,修行和証悟不再是直線上前後的關係,而是圓圈無始無終「道環」的關係。因此道元說:

    佛祖之大道必有無上之行持,道環而不斷絕。發心、修行、菩提、涅槃,不少間隙,行持道環。 137

    這也就是他所謂的「既修之証,則証無際。証之修,則修無始」。這樣道環的修証觀解決了修行與証悟之間的矛盾和對立,因此道元才能把他自己所謂的「我常勤精進」,當做「我已得成菩提」,「我已得成菩提」之故,「我常勤精進」。 138

      道元修証不二的修証觀的最大轉折,來自把「既是本覺,何須修行」的疑團轉化成「既已本覺,故須修行」,和「既已修行,於中必有証」, 139

     

    248

    是修和証完全融會在一起,道元這種修証一等和修証道環之修証觀的理論基礎建立在他的「無常佛性」論上,因為佛性的無常、空、非實體性,才能使得原本不可環轉的從修向証的「單行道」,變成有反轉和道環的「雙向道」。就像我們可以說「無常即佛性,佛性即無常」,我們亦可說「修行即証悟,証悟即修行」。

      只要是建立在佛性論的修証觀,不管是始覺間或本覺門,佛性、修行、証悟三者之間始終存在著理論上的矛盾和分立。中國禪宗許多祖師為解決理論上的困難,主張在理上採取本覺門,而在事上採取始覺門的修証觀。在理事不二的前提下,對於中國禪師而言,這種說法並無所謂矛盾。但對道元而言,只要「圖作佛」的由修向証的二元存在,即有矛盾對立,因為它還是預設有一個凡夫眾生的世界,透過努力「圖作佛」的修行方法,達到「作佛」的目的。而道元修証觀的最大特點即是在根本上打破方法(means)和目的(end)的時空界線,使二者產生相互加強的互動。因此對道元而言,正確的修証不是「修而待悟」或「悟由修成」,而是「修中悟」和「悟中修」同時進行的無始無終的歷程,這也就是為什麼道元強調從眾生觀點,只要「只管打坐(修行)」,不必去追求証悟解脫,而對佛而言,即使在悟境,還是不斷地行持道環地妙修。如此,不但可達到本証與妙修無差別,亦就是《華嚴經》所說的「心、佛、眾生,是三無差別的境界。」

      道元修証一等的修証觀,不但成為佛教徒在修証的觀念和方法上最佳的導引,而且,從廣義的層面而言,對天天掙扎於「手段(means)和目的(end)」之間的一般人,修証一如的觀念也很有適用性。 140一般人在日常生活中往往為將來設定一個目標(end),而現在以各種手段和方法去追求那個未來的目標,這種從現在的方法趣向未來目標的過程,就像由現在的修行趣向未來的証悟(修待悟、圖作佛)一樣,永達存在著二元的分立,對這樣的人生目的論,一方面由於一味地追求未來的目的,容易忽略「當下現成」的意義,另一方面在目的未達成之前,容易引起不安和煩惱。

     

    249

      對治一般人這種追求目標所引起的煩惱,就是應用道元的修証一等的觀念,把手段和目的(現在和未來)的二分,轉變成手段和目的一等的人生觀。如此,現在所作的每一個努力(手段或方法),當下即是未來目的的「現成」。「現在」的意義不再僅是為達到未來目的而存生。在時空無常的理論基礎上,現在與未來(手段和目的)超越時空限制,產生道元所說的「道環」的作用。在方法和目的相即相入的互動中,每個人可以有一個更具活力、創造性和成就感的生命。

      上面所說的理論可以更擴大應用在個人自己與萬物的關係上。對道元而言,每個人與萬事萬物都處於不斷的無常生滅變遷之中,因此雖然「一人一時坐禪」,卻可同時「諸法相冥,諸時圓通」,換言之,某個人的修証(目的)可以作為其他人修証的因緣(方法),反之亦然。這種關係甚至可擴及有情與無情(自然)界。所以道元說:

    作廣大佛事,甚深微妙佛化,此化道所及草木土地,共放大光明,說深妙法無窮時,草木牆壁,能為凡聖含靈宣揚。凡聖含靈,還為草木牆壁演暢。 註141

    只有在方法和目的一等的前提下,才能達到道元所說的草木牆壁和凡聖含靈為彼此說法(方法),又同時達到有情和非情同証佛道的境界(目的)。把自己的修証與萬物的修証二分,就不是真正的修証。所以道元說:「運自己修証萬法為迷,萬法進修証自己則悟也。」 142換言之,在運自己修証萬法時,必須同時萬法修証自己,而在萬法修証自己時,也必須同時運自己修証萬法,如此才能達到修証一等,自己與萬法完全不二的境界。

      以上所提到無論是將修証一等運用在個人的宗教生活、日常生活,或個人或萬法的關係上,都是建立在無常無我的思想基礎上,因此道元強調說「慣習佛道者,慣習自己也」。「慣習自己」是修習佛道或一般人建立人格自律的第一步驟。但是在慣習自己的同時,道元說要「坐忘自己」,這是進入空、無常、無我的體証。在坐忘自己的同時,即能「見証萬法」,而見証萬法即是「使自己身心,及它己身心脫落」的境界。但是這種自他皆身心脫落的境界,並非是「悟跡休歇」的消極狀態,而是源源不斷,時時刻刻「令休歇悟

    250

    跡長長出」 143的修証現成。

     

    五、道元的佛性思想與「批判佛教」

     

      日本佛教學術界自一九八0年代中期開始,由駒澤大學的𠗟谷憲昭和松本史朗二位教授發動了一個所謂「批判佛教」的運動, 144在日本和北美佛教學術界都引起不小的反響。 145整個「批判佛教」的內容和發展不是本文探討的範圍,然而,因為道元的佛性思想是「批判佛教」討論的主要對像之一,故本文最後就「批判佛教」與道元思想之關係作一略論。

      何謂「批判佛教」?根據𠗟谷自己的定義是:「佛教即是批判」或「唯有批判性的才是佛教。」其實,從整個佛教思想的發展史而言,就是一個「佛教批判史」。從原始佛教發展到部派佛教、大乘佛教,每個時期的思想都是對前一期的思想加上批判、反省、推演而成。再者,如中國佛教中,主張「空」或「有」、「三乘」或「一乘」、「有性」或「無性」等的學派也是不斷彼此批判。既然如此,現代日本學者提出的「批判佛教」又有何新意呢?

      基本上,𠗟谷和和松本的「批判佛教」有下列主要觀點:

      1.如來藏思想(本覺思想)是一種「基體說」(dhatu-vada),類似有我論。

      1. 2.佛陀的真正教示在於「緣起說」(Pratityasamutpada),而非「基體說」。
      2.  

        251頁

        3.因此,任何含有如來藏思想者(包括禪宗),均非佛教。

      3. 4.日本「和」的思想源自本覺思想,是造成日本社會中不平等、不正義的「差別待遇」(social discrimination), 146甚至於是日本「軍國主義」的理論基礎。

  如來藏被質疑為神我思想由來已久,從《楞伽經》大慧菩薩質疑如來藏「同外道說我」,到中國佛教歷代性宗與相宗之爭,日本佛教最澄與德一的佛性論諍,及至十九世紀末唯識學派對《大乘起信論》、《圓覺經》的批判等等,都是對如來藏思想的挑戰。主張「如來藏為佛說」的陣營也不斷地引經據典提出辯護,從《佛性論》、《寶性論》、《大乘起信論》到華嚴宗的「性起說」、天台宗的「性具說」,禪宗的「如來(藏)禪」,日本天台本覺說,及至現代一些西方佛教學者,都極力論証如來藏(佛性)思想的「合(佛)法性」。 147兩個陣營立場分明,立論也都各有所據。不過,以往反對陣營通常將如來藏說判定為不了義說,而不像現代的「批判佛教」的一樣,將如來藏思想,及其有關的學說和宗派都判定為「非佛教」或「偽佛教」加以全盤否定。再者,「批判佛教」極力批判如來藏思想為日本社會歧視和階級差別的禍首, 148也是「批判佛教」的特點之一,雖然其立論很多地方有待商確和被「批判」。 149

  「批判佛教」對於道元思想批判的主要重點在於(1)道元的佛性思想是否屬於本覺思想,(2)道元的那些著作呈現本覺思想。根據[-+]谷的看法,道元七十五卷本的《正法眼藏》中的佛性論並未完全擺脫天台本覺思想,雖然他一再強調「無常佛性」的觀念。但是,[-+]谷又認為七十五卷《正法眼藏》

252

不能真正代表道元的思想,反而是十二卷本《正法眼藏》中道元強烈批判本覺思想,這才是道元最後的見解。對𠗟谷的這種看法,同屬「批判佛教」的松本提出批判。松木認為既使十二卷本《正法眼藏》還是未能擺脫如來藏思想的影響。

  十二卷本《正法眼藏》的手稿是在一九三0年被永久岳水博士於永光寺發現,然而,十二卷本早已為人所熟知。《正法眼藏》有許多版本,其中最通行的是由大本山永平寺出版的九十五卷《本山版》,另外還有七十五卷本,八十四卷本等等。其中七十五卷本據說是道元在世時即已撰輯完成,六十卷本通稱為「舊草」。道元本有意撰成一百卷,但未能如願。道元過世後,其首座弟子懷奘將道元晚年的撰述合集十二卷,成為後來所謂十二卷的「新草」。 150

  十二卷本各卷的題名分別為:(1)出家功德,(2)受戒,(3)袈裟功德,(4)發菩提心,(5)供養諸佛,(6)歸依佛法僧寶,(7)深信因果,(8)三時業,(9)四馬,(10)四禪比丘,(11)一百八法明門,(12)八大人覺。從創作的時間上而言,十二卷本雖然居於後出,但是從內容而言,七十五卷顯然包含了道元的思想精華。十二卷本的內容則偏重佛教基本教義的教示,如因果、業力,以及強調出家、受戒等出家道的重要性。學術界有二種對十二卷本不同評價的看法,海因教授(steven Heine)把他們稱為「倒退論」(Decline Theory)和「重興論」(Renewal Theory), 151主張前者的學者包括 Carl Bielefeldt 152Heinrich Dumoulin 153傅偉勳等。這些學者都認為十二卷本代表道元思想的倒退,就如傅偉勳所批評的:「十二卷本《正法眼藏》衹顯示了道元有意回歸原始佛教的「開倒車」意願,且不說

253

他於此本明確採取(偏向小乘修行)的出家至上主義偏差」。 154

  主張「重興論」的學者是「批判佛教」陣營中的𠗟谷憲昭,他認為十二卷《正法眼藏》才能代表道元思想的高峰,因為道元於中強調困果觀,擺脫了前期七十五卷中的本覺思想。𠗟谷批評本覺思想沒有真正遵從佛教基本的因果思想,反而是造成平等的假相。他認為如來藏、佛性等與本覺相關的思想,皆含有一種缺乏批判性的容受(Tolerence)和融會(Syncretism)思想,整體的和諧淹沒了個別的獨特性。從本體論而言,「批判佛教」認為本覺思想的最大問題在於它不容許另一個「其他」(one other)的存在, 155因為本覺思想主張萬事萬物均起自一個單一的「基體」(dhatu),因此無法容受其他存在的差異性。如果將此理論運用在政治上,本覺思想就變成威權主義、民族主義等最好的理論依據。

𠗟  [-+]谷主張十二卷本代表道元真正思想的主要理由,在於它能擺脫本覺思想,何以見得道元能擺脫本覺呢?[-+]谷認為這是因為道元在十二卷本中一再強調傳統因果觀的重要性。在〈深信因果〉篇中,道元引用一則禪宗公案:百丈懷海每次開示都有一位老人聽講。一日百丈問他是何人,老人答說:「某甲非人也,於過去迦葉佛時,曾住此山。因學人問:『大修行底人,還落因果也無?』某甲答曰:『不落因果。』後五百年生墮野狐身。今請和尚代一轉語,貴脫狐身。」老人隨即問百丈曰:「大修行底人,還落因果也無?」百丈回答說:「不昧因果。」老人於言下大悟,終於得脫野狐身, 156對這個公案,道元做如下的評論:

參學輩不明因果道理,有徒撥無因果誤謬,可憐澆風一扇,而祖道陵替焉矣。不落因果,正是撥無因果也。由茲墮於惡趣。不昧因果,明是深信因果也。由茲聽者脫於惡趣,非可杄非可疑。近代參禪學道輩,多撥無因果焉。因何知撥無因果焉?謂所謂不落及不昧,一等不異也,由茲知撥無因果也矣。註157

道元引用禪宗公案強烈表達「深信因果」的重要。他認為「不落因果」即「撥

 

254

無因果」,「不昧因果」即是「深信因果」,並且批評當時參禪學道之輩因為誤認「不落因果」與「不昧因果」為一等不異,所以落入「撥無因果」的邪見。道元批評的對象包括了宏智, 註158圜悟克勤, 註159大慧宗杲註160等大禪師,他指出這些禪師不是撥無因果,就是落入常見或外道的自然見。

  道元同時又批判「人死必歸性海,歸大我」,「不修習佛法,而自然歸覺海」的見解,𠗟谷認為這正是對「本覺思想」的一種批判。在七十五卷本《正法眼藏》中,處處可見道元含攝山河大地的本覺思想,但是在十二卷本的〈四禪比丘〉篇中,道元對此觀點顯然有所修正,他說:

或言諸佛廣証法界故,微塵法界皆諸佛所証,然依正二報共成如來所說故,山河大地日月星辰,四倒三毒皆如來所說,見山河則見如來,三毒四倒無非佛法,見微塵齊見法界,造次顛沛皆三菩提也,謂之大解脫,是名單傳直指祖道。如是謂輩如稻麻竹葦,遍滿于朝野……總不知佛祖道也。註161

  在七十五卷本到處可見的不二思想,如上面引句所說的「三毒四倒」,與佛法不二,依報與正報不二,「造次顛沛」與「三菩提」不二等等,道元稱之為「不知佛祖道」。這成為𠗟谷認為道元修正其前期本覺思想的最有力依據。再者,道元前期思想中含有與本覺思想相契的「泛自然主義」(animism)。例如在〈禮拜得髓〉篇中,道元曾說吾人應尊重「法」,無論它是顯現於露柱、燈籠、諸佛、野干、鬼神或男女。道元又引佛言:「今日得阿耨多羅三藐三菩提,然則應願若樹、若石,可說求若田、若里,可說

255

 

應問取露柱、牆壁參究。」 註162在十二卷本中,道元則排斥這種思想,例如,他在〈歸依三寶〉篇中就說:「眾生勿徒然怖於所逼,歸依山神鬼神等……如是等法能為解脫因者,無有是處。」 註163這也是「批判佛教」的[-+]谷憲昭認為道元之捨離本覺思想的理由。

再者,「批判佛教」一直認為本覺思想是日本社會中歧視和差別待遇的根源。[-+]谷就特別對日本曹洞宗信眾奉行的基本典籍《修証儀》隱含的歧視性思想加以嚴厲的批判。《修証儀》是由大內青巒(1845-1918)依據道元的《正法眼藏》編輯而成,但是[-+]谷認為《修証儀》不但未能呈現真正道元的思想,反而包含道元所駁斥的理論,他舉一則《修証議》中有關因果報應的註解為例:

元來宇宙之本源平等一如,微塵計隔無所差別。其平等一如之本身存在著一大靈力。此靈力古今一貫,乃天地定則,依之則妙用現前。此定則名為因果道理,上至天地下至一草一木,其生生化育皆依此因果道理。 註164

[-+]谷認為這種將平等一如的宇宙本源,視為產生千差萬別事物的根源,以及萬物又回歸本源的說法,不但不是道元的主張,而且是道元極力抨擊的觀點。例如,道元說:「無今世者,形在此處,性久歸悟,性即心也,心不等身故,如是解焉,便外道也。或曰人死則必歸性海,不修習佛法,而自然歸覺海,則更無生死輪轉……正是外道也。大凡自撥無因果,誤認無今世後世也。」 註165道元認為人死後「歸性海,歸大我」是外道見,因為它帶有強烈「心常相滅」的本覺思想,而這正是《辦道話》中道元所大力批判的:

問曰:此身體者已有生,則有遷滅去,而此心性無肯滅,能知不遷滅心性在我身,則是為本性故。身是假體,死此生彼無定。心是常住,去來現在不可變……

(道元)示云:今所謂見,全非佛法,先尼外道見也。彼外道見謂我身內有一靈知,彼知即所遇緣,能辨好惡是非,知痛痒知苦樂,皆彼

256

靈知力也。然彼靈性,此身滅時,蛻而生彼,故見此滅有彼生,則不滅常往也,彼外道見如是。然效此見而為佛法,握瓦礫謂金寶,猶愚也,癡迷可恥。 註166

以上引句中很顯然地,道元徹底反對「心常相滅」說,這種類似神我論的說法當然是不合基本佛教教義,但是𠗟谷認為曹洞宗門卻引用做為辯正階級差別的依據。𠗟谷舉岸𢓭惟安(1865-1955)為例。岸𢓭曾說靈源皎潔猶如水源,由此靈源流出枝派,枝派又回歸靈源,源一枝多,佛法亦如是。佛種由眾緣而起,又回歸成「丈六金身」。因此,佛教一方面說平等,另一方面亦說差別,這可應用到社會階級上,亦即「階級+無差別=竺土大仙心」。註167𠗟谷指出𢓭岸所說的「靈源」正是道元指責的先尼外道說,更嚴重的是這種平等即差別,差別即平等的說法,正是造成社會不平等的籍口。

  總括以上「批判佛教」對道元思想的探討和批判,可以總結下列幾個要點,但這對這些要點,我們亦可提出反問:

  1. 如來藏思想(及其後來發展出的本覺思想)乃非正統佛教思想。問題是:如來藏思想是否真的非佛教?
  2. 道元在七十五卷本《正法眼藏》中含有強烈的本覺思想,但在十二卷本中則修正其觀點。問題是:道元的本覺思想是否即「批判佛教」所批判的本覺思想?再者,道元前後期佛性思想是否有所改變?
  3. 本覺思想是日本社會階級差別的主因。問題是:本覺思想本身是否為唯一造成日本社會差別事實的思想,或者另有非佛教的因素所造成的?

  第(1)點是「批判佛教」的主要觀點,其認為如來藏非佛教的主要理由是佛教主張緣起說、無我說,而如來藏思想主張「基體說」(dhatu-vada),亦即「由單一實在的基體(dhatu)生起多元的諸法(dharma)」,松本史朗稱之為「發生論的一元論」或「根源實在論」, 註168此含有神我論的如來藏思想與緣起無我論正相背反。對此批判,傳統佛教與現代學者均曾提出辯謢, 註169如《佛性論》、《寶性論》皆指出如來藏思想所使用的肯定語言,

257

不是肯定有「我」的存在,而是為了對治眾生對「空」的誤解和畏懼。雖然經論中也稱如來藏或佛性為「我」,但是其「我」非外道之「我」。《佛性論》解釋說:「如經偈說:『二空己清淨,得無我勝我;佛得淨性故,無我轉成我。』諸外道等,於五取陰中,執見有我,為翻其我執虛妄故,修習般若波羅蜜,至得最勝無我,即我波羅蜜。」 註170 從証悟人法二空所得的「無我」遠勝於得道的「我」,而佛所証得之清淨佛性的「我」是轉自最勝的「無我」,因此佛性的「我(波羅蜜)」,與外道的「我」是全然不同的。如來藏(佛性)的本質與無我不相違背,只是其肯定性的用語類似有我論而已。

  第(2)點,道元確實主張佛性說,但其佛性思想並非「批判佛教」所說的「基體說」。事實上,道元在他的〈佛性篇〉中,將佛性詮釋為「無性佛性」,而且不斷地將佛性思想與外道的「自然見」劃清界線。例如,道元說:

 ()「若言一切眾生本是佛者,還同外道也。以我我所比諸佛,不可免未得謂得,未証謂証者也。」

    註171

   (「後學必勿同自然見外道。百丈大智禪師云:「若執本清淨、本解脫、自是佛、自是禪道解者,   即屬自然外道。」 註172

   ()「聞佛性言者,而學者多如先尼外道我邪見也,夫不逢人,不逢自己,不見師故。」 註173

   ()「遍界不曾藏者,非必遍界是有也,遍界有我者,則外道邪見.」註174

  道元的佛性並非「批判佛教」所說的一個實體性的「基體存在」,而是「無我」的我,即是阿部正雄所說的「沒有決定者的決定者,而沒有決定者的決定者,就是自我決定,自由和自我特性(selfhood)。」註175總之,道元的佛性思想非「批判佛教」所批判的本覺思想。

  至於道元是否在十二卷本《正法眼藏》修正其「本覺思想」,其實,這個問題不能成立,因為道元的佛性思想自始至終不是「基體說」。如𠗟谷憲昭所論証,道元在十二卷中強調的「深信因果」,「三時業」能擺脫基體論的本覺思想,其前期的佛性思想亦不帶有「基體論」的論調。因此就道元的佛性思想而言,前後的著述並無不同,有所不同的是道元在晚年態度偏向回

 

258

歸原始佛教的基本教義(因果、業力)和修道的生活方式(出家至上主義)。

  第(3)點,「批判佛教」指責本覺思想是日本社會階級差別的主因。[被-皮+夸]谷雖然沒有批評道元有歧視思想,卻認為根據《正法眼藏》編篡而成的曹洞宗修行指南──《修証儀》,帶有歧視性的語言和思想。[被-皮+夸]谷認為本覺思想是日本社會歧視的理論基礎,但沒有明白舉出任何事例,以証明兩者有必然的因果關係。即使本覺思想被誤用來辯護日本社會的階級差異現象,也並不表示本覺思想本質上含有歧視思想。事實上,𠗟谷也承認本覺思想主張一切眾生皆具普遍性的本覺,因此眾生究竟平等無有差別。因此,問題不在本覺思想本身,而是如何被運用的問題。再好的理論和思想都有被誤用的可能,但不能因此歸罪此理論或思想。總之,「批判佛教」批評本覺思想為社會歧視的元凶,並不具說服力,更與道元的佛性思想無關。

六、結語

  佛教是一個主張理論與實踐並重的宗教,道元禪師正是日本佛教中一位兼顧兩者最傑出的禪師。他對佛教義理的透徹,表現在他精邃的思想體系裏,其中尤以對佛性、有、時、生死、實相、禪定等的詮釋最能突顯其思想的深度和原創性。在佛法的修行實踐上,道元對佛性教義的疑惑,透過他親身求法的過程,體驗出修証不二行持道環的實踐真諦。佛性思想可以說是貫串道元的思想和宗教經驗的主要線索。他主張的無常佛性不但超越傳統佛性論的理論困難,更是「作佛」、「行佛」的依據,因為佛性正是在無常當下証成的。

  道元的思想,尢其是佛性思想,並非沒有爭議,例如,有些學者還是懷疑其佛性論是否真能擺脫「基體論」的意涵,佛性思想是否真如「批判佛教」學者所批評的是造成社會歧視的理論基礎。再者,道元的思想在現代社會中有關生死問題、心靈淨化、生態環保、教育等課題上,具有何種意義和啟示。由於道元思想既深又廣,給現代學者留下極大研究和探討的空間。


1和𠕇哲郎,〈沙門道元〉,收於其自著的《日本精神史研究》,東京:岩波書局,1926,頁156-246。又收於《和𠕇哲郎全集》第四卷,東京:岩波書局,1962,頁156-246。其實,自十九世紀後期間始,即有曹洞宗門下弟子,以及一些佛教學者陸續發表有關道元禪師的著作。(參閱熊本英人編,《道元思想大系》第二十二卷的《道元關係研究文獻‧年表‧總目次》,同朋舍出版,1995,頁13-16)。和𠕇本人亦曾於一九二三年,於《思想》中,發表過〈道元的「葛藤」〉、〈道元的「道得」〉、〈道元的「佛性」〉等文。由於和𠕇是京都學派的重要學者,而且其〈沙門道元〉一文為當時較具深度的研究,因此學術界將近代道元學術研究之開端歸功於他。

2有關道元的日文研究文獻,蒐集最齊全的是熊本英人編,《道元思想大系》第二十二卷的《道元關係研究文獻‧年表‧總目次》,其蒐集範圍含蓋自一八七七至一九九五年出版的有關道元的書籍和論文集。至於西文的文獻,則可以從台大佛學研究中心網際網路(http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw)上的佛學資料庫中檢索。中文方面有關道元的研究,除了傅偉勳於一九九六年出版的《道元》一書之外,幾近於零。

3《寶慶記》並非完全是道元自己整個生平的記載,而是他於宋朝寶慶元年(一二二五)至寶慶三年,在如淨禪師處參學期間,他們師徒之間心心相傳問答的記錄,其中有不少是如淨的啟迪和道元自己感應道交的宗教體驗。這也許就是為何道元生前從未出示此作的原因。

4《正法眼藏隨聞記》全書六卷,是懷奘記錄道元教誨的筆記,雖非系統化,但書中記載有關道元對於坐禪、佛法、德行、出家、文藝等的開示,對了解道元的思想,很有參考價值。此書有三種英譯本,其中之一是:Reibo Masunago, tr. A Primer of Soto ZenA Translation of Dogens Shobogenzo Zuimonki, 山喜房,1971。另外,可參閱池田魯參編,《正法眼藏隨聞記の研究》,溪水社,1989年。

5英文方面的著作,可參閱Hee-ji Jim, Dogen JigenMystical Realist, Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1975。中文方面參閱傅偉勳,《道元》,東大圖書,1996年。

6大久保道舟編,《道元禪師全集》下卷,筑摩書局,1970年,頁364

7十三世紀前後的鎌倉佛教出現了多位關鍵性人物:榮西(1141-1215)兩次入宋學禪後,創立日本臨濟宗。法然(1133-1212)開創淨土宗,其徒親鸞(1173-1262)更強調他力念佛思想,而成為淨土真宗之始祖。日蓮(1222-1282)專修「南無妙法蓮華經」唱題,被尊為日蓮宗開創祖師。

8《永平寺三祖行業記》,收於河村孝道編《諸本對校.永平開山道元禪師行狀建撕記》大修館書局,1975,頁158

9《道元禪師全集》下卷,頁471

10據云八大山人石濤,有一天因觀葉落悟無常而後出家的,可謂相當特殊的因緣。

11根據《三祖行業記》所載,道元慈母臨終前,曾囑他日後剃髮染衣,修行佛法,為父母祈福,更求菩提,以救眾生之業苦。

12河村孝道編,《諸本對校‧永平開山道元禪師行狀建撕記》,頁10。河村依撰寫年代的順序,詳細對校了明州本(天文本)、瑞長本(天正本)、延寶本(松平文庫本)、門子本(元錄本)、元文本(祖山本)、面山訂補本(流布本‧寶曆本)。

註13道元於建保二年(一二一二年)向公胤提出他的疑問時,公胤建議他「雖有宗義恐不盡理,須參建仁寺榮西。」

14《道元禪師全集》下卷,頁471

15Takashi Jodera, Dogens Formative Years in China, p.36。小寺隆孝的猜測可能就是事實,因為根據古代叢林掛單規定,學僧必須持有戒碟,方準掛單參學。

16道元對中國叢林的典座制度印象深刻,他描述說:「齋粥如法辨了,安置案上,典座搭袈裟展坐具,先望僧堂焚香九拜,拜了乃發食也。經一日夜調辨齋粥,無虛度光陰。有實排備,舉動施為,自成聖胎長養之業,退步翻身,便是大眾安樂之道也。」相對於此,道元批評日本佛教說:「我今日本國,佛法名字聞來己久,然而僧食如法作之言,先人不記,先德不教,況乎僧食九拜之禮未夢見在。國人謂:僧食之事,僧家作食法之事,宛如禽獸,食法實可生憐,實可生悲。」(《道元禪師全集》下卷,頁298。)

17以上有關道元與老典座的故事和對話,係引自《典座教訓》,收於大久保道舟編《道元

禪師全集》下卷,頁298-299

18有關如淨之禪法與思想,參閱鏡島元隆,《天童如淨禪師の研究》,春秋社,1983

19《寶慶記》原文如下:「道元幼年發菩提心,在本國訪道諸師,聊識因果之所由。雖然

如是,未明佛法僧之實歸,徒滯名相之懷𠐟。後入千光禪師之室,初聞臨濟之宗風。今隨全法師而入炎宋。航海萬里,任幻身於波濤,遂達大宋,得投和尚之法席,蓋是宿福之慶幸也。和尚大慈大悲,外國遠方之小人所願者,不拘時候,不具威儀,頻頻上方丈,欲拜問愚懷。無常迅速,生死事大,時不待人,去聖必悔。本師堂上大和尚大禪師,大慈大悲,哀愍聽許道元問道問法。伏冀慈照,小師道元百拜叩頭上覆。」(池田魯參,《寶慶記:道元の入宋求法ノ-ト》,大東出版社,1989

20如淨曾對道元有如此的期許:「你雖是從生,頗有古貌,直須居深山幽谷,長養佛祖聖胎,必至古德之証處也。」于時,道元起而拜如淨足下。如淨唱云:「能禮(道元)所禮(如淨)性空寂,感應道交難思議」。道元感淚沾襟。可見二人感應道交之情。(池田魯參,《寶慶記》,頁156。)

21《道元禪師全集》下卷,頁256

22據《建撕記》所載「身心脫落」是道元開悟的關鍵語。有一天如淨訓斥一個坐禪打瞌睡的學僧:「夫參禪者,身心脫落。袛管打睡作麼?」,道元聞言豁然大悟,隨後到方丈室向如淨禮拜答謝。如淨問禮拜何來,道元說:「身心脫落來」。如淨加以印証說:「身心脫落,身心脫落。」道元回答:「這箇是暫時技倆,和尚莫可亂印」。如淨答:「我不亂印爾」。道元即問:「如何是不亂印底事?」如淨答曰:「脫落脫落」。如淨對道元說「身心脫落,身心脫落」,即是要道元脫落「脫落」。也就是說如淨要道元不斷地脫落「脫落」,放下「放下」,使「修」「証」彼此相互強化。

23池田魯參,《寶慶記》,頁159

24同上註。

25道元曾請問如淨說:「近代疑者云:『三毒即佛法,五欲即祖道』,若除彼等,還同小乘。」如淨回答曰:「若不除三毒五欲等者,一如瓶沙王國阿闍世王之諸外道輩。佛祖之兒孫,若除一蓋一欲,則巨益也,與佛祖相見之時節也。」(《寶慶記》,頁 160。)

26〈現成公案〉篇,《正法眼藏註解全書》,佛教大系完成會編,大正十五年,第一冊, 238。(本文《正法眼藏》各篇之原文,均引自此書所收《卻退一字參》,以下簡稱《全書》。)

27《寶慶記》,頁151

28自然外道是古代印度諸外道之一,主張萬事萬物係自然無因而有,非由因緣所生,末

伽梨拘賒梨子(Maskari-gowahi-putra)和阿奢多翅舍欽婆羅(Ajita-kesa kambala)均屬自然外道。

29辦道話〉篇《全書》,第一冊,頁75

30同上,頁65

31《道元禪師全集》下卷,頁18

32道元回日後弘化的詳細情形己有許多研究,而且與本文無直接關係,故不重述。可參閱大久保道舟,《道元禪師傳の研究》;傅偉勳《道元》;Hee-ji kim, Dogen kigenMystical Realist.

33《增支部》曰:「比丘眾,此心極光淨,而客隨煩惱雜染,無聞異生不如實解,我說無聞異生無修心故」。

34《大毘婆沙論》卷22,《大正藏》卷27,頁110上。

35《成實論》卷3,《大正藏》卷32,頁258中。

36《小品般若波羅蜜經》卷一,《大正藏》卷8,頁537中。

37同上。

38《大智度論》卷63,《大正藏》卷25,頁508下。

39同上。

40有關如來藏思想的研究,參閱印順,《如來藏之研究》,正聞出版社,1981。高崎直道《如來藏思想の形成》,東京:春秋社,1974

41Takasaki Jikido, Dharmata, Dharmadhatu, Dharmakaya and BuddhadhatuStructure of the Ultimate Value in Mahayana Buddhism, Indogaku Bukkyo Gaku Jenkyo, Vol.14,March, 1966, pp.78-94。篠田正成,〈「佛性」とその原語〉,《印度學佛教學研究》卷111963,頁223-226

42《釋摩訶衍論》相傳為龍樹對《大乘起信論》之註解,宗密之《圓覺經略疏鈔》曾加以引用。但是自古以來,其真偽問題就爭議不斷。賢憬(705-793)、寶地房証真(十二世紀末)等曾判其為偽撰。

43《大正藏》卷77,頁371上。

44《金剛頂經開題》,《大正藏》卷61,頁3上。

45有關日本天台本覺思想的文獻、典籍解說、歷史發展等,參閱多田厚隆等人編,《天台本覺論》,《日本思想大系》第九冊,岩波書店,1973年;山內舜雄,《道元天台本覺法門》,大藏出版社,1985

46《天台法華宗牛頭法門要纂》,收於《天台本覺論》,1973,頁329-330

47同上,頁134

48同上,頁383

49同上,頁535-536

50《大日本佛教全書》卷17,頁40

51參閱山內舜雄,《道元禪と天台本覺法門》,718-744頁;庵谷行亨,〈寶地房証真のの 本覺思想批判〉,收於淺井圓道編,《本覺思想の源流と展開》,平樂寺書店,1991

52高崎直道,《道元の的佛性論》,收於鏡島元隆編,《道元思想の特徵》,春秋社,1988,頁108-109

53〈佛性〉篇,《全書》,第三卷,頁295

54同上。

55《大般涅槃經》,《大正藏》卷12,頁492上。世親所著的《涅槃經本有今無偈論》中,對此偈有很清楚的解釋,他說:「本無今有者,若前是無本而今有,有者則無得解脫。前煩惱未起,則是離解脫,而後生煩腦,則無解脫。若前無今有者,最極無生當應得生,如空生花。」(《大正藏》卷26,頁281中-下)

56《大般若經》卷403〈觀照品〉說:「修行般若波羅蜜多菩薩摩訶薩,不為神境智通故,修行般若波羅蜜多,不為天耳、他心、宿住、隨念、天眼、漏盡、智通故,修行般若波羅蜜多。何以故?修行般若波羅蜜多菩薩摩訶薩,尚不見般若波羅蜜多,況見菩薩及諸如來六神通事。」(《大正藏》卷7,頁16上-中)。

57〈佛性〉篇,頁295。

58同上,頁293

59《景德傳燈綠》卷5,《大正藏》卷51,頁240下。

60〈佛性〉篇,頁296

61同上。

62《佛性論》,《大正藏》卷31,頁787中。

63〈佛性〉篇,頁296-297

64《楞伽經》中大慧菩薩請問佛陀曰:「世尊,修多羅說如來藏自性清淨,轉三十二相,入於一切眾生身中,如大價寶,垢衣所纏,如來之藏常往不變,亦復如是,而陰界入垢衣所纏,貪欲恚癡不實妄想塵勞所汙,一切諸佛所演說。云何世尊,同外道說我言有如來藏耶?世尊!外道亦說有常作者,離於求那周遍不滅。」(《大正藏》卷16,頁489上-中)

65「批判佛教」起自日本學者𠗟谷憲昭與松本史朗兩人認為佛性(本覺說)是「場所哲學」(topical philosophy)的一種「基體論」(dhatuvada),有違佛教空與緣起的基本教義。參閱𠗟谷憲昭,《本覺思想批判》,大藏出版社,1989;𠗟谷憲昭,《批判佛教》,大藏出版社,1990;松本史朗,《緣起と空》,大藏出版社,1989 Jamie Hubbard & Paul Swanson, eds, Pruning the Bodhi Tree: the Storm Over Critical Buddhism, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997

66〈佛性〉篇,頁297

67〈即心是佛〉篇,《全書》卷一,頁356-357。此語錄出自《景德傳燈錄》卷28

68《佛性論》定義「佛性為二空所顯真如」。 《楞伽經》則將佛性(如來藏)與「空、無相、無願、如、法身、涅槃、不生不滅」等視為同義語。

69參閱世親撰,《佛性論》,《大正藏》卷31,頁788下-793上。

70〈佛性〉篇,頁299

71《金七十論》,《大正藏》卷54,頁1246-1247上。

72《大般涅槃經》卷24,《大正藏》卷12,頁760中。

73〈佛性〉篇,頁300

74《大般涅槃經獅子吼菩薩品》卷28,《大正藏》卷12,頁532上。

75《景德傳燈錄》卷9,《大正藏》卷51,頁264中。

76《聯燈會要》卷6,《卍續藏經》卷136,頁270下。

77道元將《聯燈會要》的「時節若至」,解釋成「時節既至」,並不見得就如傅偉勳所說的是道元「天才的誤讀」,因為《景德傳燈錄》即是用「時節既至」。參閱傅偉勳,《道元》,東大書局,1996,頁139

78〈佛性〉篇,頁302

79〈辦道話〉,《全書》,第一卷,頁68

80參閱Masao Abe,Dogen on Buddha Nature,in A Study of Dogen, ed. by Steven Heine, NewYork: State University of New York Press, 1992, pp.69-76。此篇文章的中譯,參閱王雷泉,〈道元論佛性〉,《內明》。第190-193期,1988.01-04

81〈有時〉篇,《全書》,第二卷,頁59

82〈佛性〉篇,頁303-304

83〈有時〉篇,頁57

84參閱傅偉勳,《道元》,頁119-120

85〈有時〉篇,頁57

86〈有時〉篇,頁56

87《景德傳燈錄》卷一,《大正藏》卷51,頁209下。

88〈佛性〉篇,頁305

89同上。

90「六神通」指神足通、天眼通、天耳通、他心通、宿命通、漏盡通。

91「六神通」、「波羅蜜」是傳統佛教術語,但典籍中未見有「六神通波羅蜜」一詞,道元把六神通與波羅蜜結合,付予大乘「究竟」的意義。

92文殊問無著:「近離甚處?」著云:「南方。」殊云:「南方佛法,如何住持?」著云:「末法比丘,少奉戒律。」殊云:「多少眾?」著云:「或三白,或五百。」無著問文殊:「此間佛法,如何住持?」殊云:「凡聖同居,龍蛇混雜。」著云:「多少眾?」殊云:「前三三後三三。」(《聯燈會要》卷29,《卍字續藏經》卷136,頁464上。)

93龐居士坐次問(其妻)靈照云:「古人道:『明明百草頭,明明祖師意』你作麼生?」照云:「老老大大,作這箇語話。」士曰:「爾作麼生?」照云:「明明百草頭,明明祖師意。」士乃大笑。(《龐居士語錄》卷中,《卍續藏經》卷120,頁31。)

94〈佛性〉篇,頁323-324

95〈即心是佛〉篇,頁358

96同上,頁359-361

97〈佛性〉篇,頁294

98《大乘玄論》卷3,《大正藏》卷45,頁40下。

99 同上。

100 《探玄記》卷16,《大正藏》卷35,頁405下。

101《大般涅槃經》卷36,《大正藏》卷12,頁581

102《金剛》,《大正藏》卷46,頁782上。

103同上,頁784中。

104〈佛性〉篇,頁324

105〈佛性〉篇,頁306,或參閱《景德傳燈錄》卷三,四祖、五祖章。

106〈佛性〉篇,頁308

107《大般涅槃經》卷27,《大正藏》卷12,頁523中。

108「空裡一片石」出自《景德傳燈錄.石霜章》:僧問:「如何是西來意?」師曰:「空中一片石。」(《大正藏》卷51,頁320下。)

109傅偉勳,《道元》,頁142-143

110〈佛性〉篇,頁310。此典故出自《景德傳燈錄》卷三。

111同上。

112〈佛性〉篇,頁311

113同上,頁325

114同上。

115《百丈廣錄》卷三,收於藍吉富主編《禪宗全書》第39冊,頁84。百丈認為應以有無雙遣的說法,達到無戲論的無分別智,否則即成四謗:若說有即增益謗,若說無即損減謗,若說亦有亦無,即相違謗,若說非有非無即戲論謗。

116《佛性》篇,頁327

117同上,頁329

118出自《景德傳燈錄》卷五,《大正藏》卷51,頁239上。

119凡夫二乘各有四倒:凡夫外道認為世間是「常樂我淨」,此為四顛倒。二乘認為涅槃永寂,而無「常樂我淨」,此亦為顛倒,合為「八倒」。

120《景德傳燈錄》卷五,《大正藏》卷51,頁239上。

121參閱拙著,〈大般涅槃經的佛性說〉,《佛學研究中心學報》第一期,1996,頁31-88。

122〈佛性〉篇,頁315

123同上。

124參閱Masao Abe, A Study of Dogen: His Philophy and Religion, p.60

125〈佛性〉篇,頁315-316。

126〈佛性〉篇,頁316

127參閱Masao AbeA Study of Dogen: His Philophy and Religion, p.61

128從形而上而言,這個問題就是《大乘起信論》中試圖會通的「自性不染而染,染而不染」(本覺與無明)的問題,也是《勝鬘經》所說有二法難可了知:一即自性清淨心而有染汙,一即染汙中有自性清淨心。

129池田魯參,《寶慶記─道元的入宋求法ノ-ト》,大東出版社,平成元年,頁180

130〈辦道話〉篇,頁71

131同上,頁63

132同上,頁74-75

133同上,頁75

134阿部正雄在探討道元「修証一等」修証觀的一篇文章中,把佛性(法性)稱為「基礎」(ground),參閱Masao Abe, The Oneness of Practice and Attainment: Implications for the Reason between Means and Ends, 收於William LaFleur主編的Dogen Studies,University of Hawaii Press, 1985, pp.99-111。為了避免將「基礎」誤認為實體性的本體,改稱為「先天依據」。

135傅偉勳指出始覺門是「修証兩橛觀」,其實天台的本覺門亦如是,只是兩者的角度各有不同。參閱傅偉勳,《道元》,頁214

136〈安居〉篇,《全書》卷8,頁651

137〈行持〉篇,《全書》卷4,頁461

138〈三十七品菩提分法〉篇,《全書》卷8,頁338

139日本學者鏡島元隆在他的《天童如淨禪師の研究》中,對道元的修証觀有其獨特看法。他指出始覺門持「修証雖是不二,但要修必向証」的修証觀,而本覺門持「修証既是不二,故要証必向修」。他認為道元所持的修証觀屬於後者。其實,嚴格來說,道元的修証觀應是超越始覺門和本覺門的修証觀。不過,鏡島對道元與如淨修証觀的關係,有很深入的觀察。他說道元的「本証妙修的修証觀確是如實承受如淨思想而有;但我們應該說,那並不是站立在中國宋代禪的修証觀背景上面的如淨本身的主場所成立的,而是以站在日本天台本覺門的背景的道元禪師為催化劑,從如淨之中喚醒而成的修証觀。」參閱鏡島元隆,《天童如淨禪師の研究》,春秋社,1983,頁122-133;傅偉勳,《道元》,頁20-24

140此段參考自Masao Abe, A Study of Dogen, pp.30-33

141〈辦道話〉篇,頁68。

142〈現成公案〉篇,頁236

143同上,頁238

144「批判佛教」導源於日本曹洞宗發生的「町田氏事件」。曹洞宗祕書長町田宗夫於一九七九年召開的第三屆世界宗教與和平會議中,否認日本社會中存在著社會差別待遇和種族歧視,因此遭至「部落解放同盟」的強烈抗議。曹洞宗的學者們開始反省,並且積極地在佛典中找出各種歧視的理論根源,批判如來藏(本覺)思想於茲展開。𠗟谷憲昭有關「批評佛教」的代表作有:(1)《本覺思想批判》(1989年),(2)《批判佛教》(1990),(3)《道元と佛教:十二卷本《正法眼藏の道元》(1992)。松本史朗的代表作,則有:(1)《緣起と空:如來藏思想批判》(1989年),(2)《禪思想之批判的研究》(1994)。以上均為「大藏出版社」所出版。

145北美佛教學術界於一九九三年的「美國宗教學年會」(American Academy of Religion)中,特別舉辦一場有關「批判佛教」的討論會。Jamie HubbardPaul Swanson二位教授收集了二十三篇有關「批判佛教」的論文,於一九九七年出版Pruning the Bodhi Treethe Storm Over Critical Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 1997

146參閱𠗟谷憲昭,〈「和」の反佛教性と佛教の反戰性〉,收於《批判佛教》,頁275-304

147參閱Sallie B.Jing, The Doctrine of Buddha-nature Is Impeccably Buddhist,”收於Pruning the Bodhi Treethe storm Over Critical Buddhism, pp.174-192

148參閱𠗟谷憲昭,〈差別事象を生み出した思想的背景に關する私見〉,收於《本覺思想批判》,頁134-158。此文之英譯收於Pruning the Bodhi Treethe storm Over Critical Buddhism, pp.339-355

149舉例言之,𠗟谷認為由於宇宙本源平等一如,正即偏、偏即正的說法,導至差別即平等、平等即差別的結論。如運用在現實生活,就會造成無異議地接受社會中歧視性的差別待遇。𠗟谷的這這種看法,最多也只能說是部份正確。因為如果正確地被運用的話,如來藏平等無差別的思想,正可以導至社會平等、正義的結果。因此,如來藏思想本身不是問題,如何正確地被運用才是問題。

150有關十二卷本的研究,參閱鏡島元隆、鈴木格禪合編,《十二卷本正法眼藏の諸問題》,大藏出版社,1991

151Steven Heine, The Dogen Canon: Dogens Pre-Shobogenzo Writings and the Question of Change in His Later Works, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, vol.24, No.1-2, Spring,1997, pp.39-85

152Carl Bielefeldt, Recarving the Dragon: History and Dogma in the Study of Dogen, in Dogen Studies, William La Fleur, ed., Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985,pp.21-53

153Heinrich Dumoulin, Zen BuddhismA History, vol.Ⅱ, New York: Macmillan, 1990, pp.62-104

154傅偉勳,《道元》,頁265

155Steven Heine, Critical Buddhism and Dogens Shobogenzo: the Debate Over 75-Fascicle and 12-Fascicle Texts, in Pruning the Bodhi Tree, pp. 251-285

156〈深信因果〉篇,《全書》卷9,頁335

註157同上,頁336

註158宏智禪師有一則有關因果的頌古:「一尺水一丈波,五百生前不奈何。不落不昧商量也,依然撞入葛藤窠。」道元認為其後二句有誤認「不落及不昧可同」之嫌。(〈深信因果〉篇,頁338。)

註159圜悟禪師頌古曰:「魚行水濁,鳥飛毛落,至鑑難逃,大虛寥廓,一往迢迢五百生,只緣因果大修行,疾雷破山風震海,百煉精金色不改。」道元批評此頌「猶有撥無因果,更有常見」的旨趣。(〈深信因果〉篇,頁339。)

註160大慧禪師頌曰:「不落不昧,石頭土塊,陌路相逢,銀山粉碎,拍手呵呵一場,明州有一憨布袋。」道元批評大慧之「見解未及佛法施權旨,有自然見解趣矣。」(〈深
信困果〉篇,頁340。)

註161〈四禪比丘〉篇,《全書》卷9,頁380

註162〈禮拜得髓〉篇,《全書》卷1,頁456-457

註163〈歸依三寶〉,《全書》卷9,頁312

註164𠗟谷憲昭,《本覺思想批判》,頁143

註165〈深信因果〉篇,頁338

註166〈辦道話〉篇,頁77-78

註167𠗟谷憲昭,《本覺思想批判》,頁147

註168松本史朗,《緣起と空》,大藏出版社,1990,頁1-9

註169參閱Sallie B.Jing, The Doctrine of Buddha-nature Is Impeccably Buddhist, 收於
Pruning the Bodhi Tree, pp.174-192

註170《佛性論》,《大正藏》卷31,頁678下。

註171鈴木格禪.河村孝道等校訂.註釋,《道元禪師全集》第七卷,春秋社1990,頁6-7

註172 〈身心學道〉篇,《全書》卷五,頁391

註173〈佛性〉篇,頁297

註174〈佛性〉篇,頁276註175 Masao Abe, A Study of DogenHis Philophy and Religion, pp.47-48

Soh

 thezensite: Doctrine and the Concept of Truth in Dōgen's Shobogenzo


Doctrine and the Concept of Truth in Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō

Dale S Wright
© Journal of the American Academy of Religion,
Vol 54, No. 2 (Summer 1986) pp 257-277
Dale S. Wright is Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Occidental College, Los Angeles, California

p 257 Since the early twentieth century in Japan and for the past two decades in the west, the Zen master Dōgen  (1200-1253), founder of the Sōtō lineage, has attracted widespread attention and acclaim both as a philosopher and as a literary master. Dōgen 's primary work, the Shōbōgenzō, written and compiled serially during the last two decades of his life, is now regarded as one of the greatest expressions of truth in the Buddhist tradition. The title itself, The Eye and Treasury of True Dharma, [1]shows that the overall aim of the work is to disclose truth. The text purports to penetrate to the very essence of Buddhist experience by disclosing its truth (bo) properly or correctly (sho). Invariably dedicated to the truth of the matter at hand, Dōgen  works his way through the vast spectrum of traditional Buddhist thought and practices, skillfully appropriating, criticizing, and redefining the meaning of Buddhist experience. Yet nowhere in this quest for truth does the Shōbōgenzō systematically address the question of the nature of truth as such. We are not told what understanding of truth supports the claim, for example, that a certain doctrine is true, or that the practice of zazen authenticates the truth of doctrine. The aim of this study of the Shōbōgenzō will be to clarify its implicit concept of truth, and to show how such clarification can shed light on the meaning of the text as a whole.

This task is complicated, however, by the fact that the Shōbōgenzō deals with two kinds of truth, yet never makes their difference explicit. On the other hand, true Dharma signifies "correct doctrine," p 257 and many chapters in the Shōbōgenzō take this as their primary concern. "True followers of the way" are sharply distinguished from "non-believers," and "right transmission" of Buddhism is opposed to "false doctrine." Here the Shōbōgenzō's task is to clarify the difference between true and false doctrinal positions and to encourage correct belief. In this case, "truth" implies a straightforward correspondence between doctrine and the reality that it represents.

According to a second understanding, however, truth is manifest beyond the distinction between correct and incorrect correspondence. This view overturns the centrality of doctrine in the sense that true Dharma does not contrast with false Dharma, but rather, includes it. Hence, truth can encompass equally the oppositions between belief and doubt, enlightened and ignorant, samsara and nirvana. This understanding of truth goes beyond truth as correspondence, yet includes subtle traces of it. True Dharma in these references is that in which one resides, or the essence that all beings embody, but in no instance is it a conceptual possession of certain individuals. On the contrary, all beings are possessed by it whether they realize it or not. As we shall see, both of these understandings of truth can be found throughout the Shōbōgenzō.

Truth as Correct Dharma and Right Understanding

Dōgen initiates a significant change of course in the Zen tradition when, from within that tradition, he opposes the radically anti-doctrinal posture of Zen's paradigmatic figures such as Bodhidharma, Hui-neng, Lin-chi, and Ta-hui. Even today, Dōgen 's writings are unique in the Zen tradition for the extent to which they take seriously such traditional matters as doctrine, language, scripture, and faith. In chapter after chapter of the Shōbōgenzō, an adamant stand is taken: sutras are not just "names and forms" that must be rejected in order to attain authentic practice and enlightenment. On the contrary, to reject the sutras is to reject the Buddha's proclamation of Dharma. For Dōgen, the spoken Dharma is as essential as the "wordless Dharma" and, in fact, is inseparable from it. Similarly, for Dōgen, the practice of zazen is not, as some of the great Chinese Ch'an masters had been teaching, a ritualized behavior that one must leave behind in the quest for enlightened spontaneity. Failure to practice zazen is failure to practice the Buddha Way. Zazen is not an ordinary activity; it is handed down from Buddhas and Patriarchs as the right way to practice enlightenment.

p 258 The Shōbōgenzō expresses immense respect for the Buddhist sutras, for the historical Buddha who initiated their transmission, and for the transmitted tradition as a whole, and on this basis, takes a strong stand in doctrinal matters. A master of critique, with an uncanny sense and awareness of language,  Dōgen works his way through the vast repertoire of Buddhist doctrines and practices, alternately praising, criticizing, and reinterpreting them. In the process, Dōgen makes it perfectly clear: belief or disbelief is not an indifferent matter. On the contrary, correct doctrinal belief is essential to the Buddhist way.  Dōgen is persistent in his efforts to expose "false views" and to present the "correct viewpoint." Ability to "discriminate the true from the false" is for  Dōgen essential to enlightenment (1977:78/1972:188). [3] "Trainees should learn this: It is imperative that we can discern true from false" (1983a:109;1972:450). "Mistaken belief," "evil belief," "distorted ideas and opinions" are to be rooted out, and replaced by the "correct viewpoint," "truth without error." References to "non-believers" — those doctrinally "outside the Way" — are found throughout the Shōbōgenzō, and  Dōgen warns of the dangers of associating with them (1983a:83;1972:75). Various versions of "distorted teaching" stand in clear opposition to the true, which should not be subjected to doubt (1983b:16;1972:345). "When you hear the true teaching believe it without any doubt" (1975:95;1970:294-5). "Do not have any doubt about it" (1977: 164; 1970:332).

Which particular doctrines and viewpoint are taken to be "correct" is not of concern here. But one example will illustrate how the case is made for right understanding in doctrinal matters. In the ]inshin Inga chapter, where Dōgen  defends the principle of "causality," the text reads: "To harbor doubts regarding the law of causality as many monks do, is a clear denial of this law's very existence. Truly it is regrettable that the Way of the Buddhas and Patriarchs has declined in this way.... We should not doubt this [teaching]" (1983a:97;1972:432). Correct belief on this issue distinguishes true Buddhists from the unorthodox, those "outside the Way" (gedo). "A man may take ordination, he may wear a monk's robe, but if he subscribes to this mistaken view, he is not a disciple of the Buddha, for, as already stated, this is the doctrine of non-believers"p 260 (1983a:98-99;1972:450). Dōgen  is adamant that unless one believes and understands correctly on this matter, there can be no progress on the Buddhist path. "It is imperative that trainees clarify the principle of causality first, otherwise they will remain susceptible to false views, their practice decline, and finally they will cease from doing good altogether. The principle of causality is straightforward; those who do wrong fall into hell; those who do good attain enlightenment" (1983a:101;1972:437). Quoting a Zen poem that says that "causality is as true and unchangeable as pure refined gold" (1983a:100;1972:436), Dōgen  makes this point clearly: the principle of causality is permanent and knowable. When one understands properly and holds the correct viewpoint on this matter, then one's understanding corresponds with the way things truly are, and the consequences of such correct belief are ultimately beneficial. On the other hand, "spreading false doctrine is a most serious crime" (1983a:106;1972:447). "The principle of causality means that those who practice well realize enlightenment — it's as straightforward as that" (1983a:98;1972:433).

To justify this doctrinal claim to truth, Dōgen  appeals to tradition. "It is apparent that the Patriarchs never denied the chain of causality....Do not teach that causality does not exist; this is untrue and conflicts with the Law transmitted by the Buddhas and Patriarchs. Only those ignorant of the true teaching support such views" (1983a:97;1972:432-33). Several times the appeal is made to one particular patriarch, Nagarjuna, who, ironically enough, in his "causality" based claim that all doctrines are empty (sunya), initiated the historical sequence that led to the denial of causality that Dōgen  so dreaded. So Dōgen  invokes Nagarjuna to set things straight. "As Patriarch Nagarjuna said, "to deny, as non-Buddhists do, the principle of causality, is not only a denial of the existence of the present and future worlds, but also the existence of the three treasures, the Four Noble Truths, and the various stages of arhathood" (1983a:98; 1972:434). The authority of tradition, and of Nagarjuna in particular, is so powerful that Dōgen  can simply sum up the matter by saying: "The preceding are the compassionate teachings of the Patriarch Nagarjuna, We should gratefully accept and heed these words" (1983a:98; 1972:434).

This example shows the Shōbōgenzō's position on the nature and importance of correct doctrinal belief by focusing on a doctrine that is fundamental to most Buddhist thought. The same essential attitude, however, is presented on many matters of correct belief and practice, from the doctrine of karma to the details of monastic practice. There is a right way of belief and practice in all matters that is knowable and verifiable as true and efficacious. How can one correctly distinguish p 261 the true from the false? [4] The Shōbōgenzō's answer to this question in the above example is a pattern that appears throughout the text. Tradition, "the Buddhas and Patriarchs," supplies the standard by which to judge the truth of doctrine. "Anyone who wishes to determine if a teaching is correct or not should use the standards of the Buddhas and Patriarchs. They are the true masters of the wheel of the Law whom we should consult" (1977:23;1970:392). A doctrine can be verified as correct if it can be found to be the teaching of Buddhas and Patriarchs.

Furthermore, the Shōbōgenzō holds that the content of correct belief and practice has been accurately transmitted from the Buddhas through centuries of tradition. [5] "I also learned (from a sutra) that the Patriarchs transmit the Dharma free of error" (1983b:100;1972:400). That the Patriarchs' transmission can be trusted Dōgen  claims to have learned from a sutra. The tradition apparently verifies itself. Furthermore, because the transmission of doctrine is unbroken, the Buddhist Dharma has been able to escape the vicissitudes of history: " ... it is not difficult to authenticate a doctrine even if removed by centuries from the Buddhas and Patriarchs" (1983b:72). Dōgen  is aware of at least some of the historical and hermeneutical problems that arise when the truth of historically transmitted doctrine is based upon the word or confession of that same transmission. The divergence and plurality of belief is an often mentioned and much lamented fact in the Shōbōgenzō. But Dōgen 's response is simply that the others have received it incorrectly, and that the truth runs like a single unbroken thread down through the centuries. "Shakyamuni's Eye and Treasury of the true Law and supreme enlightenment was only rightly transmitted to Mahakasyapa, and no one else. The right transmission surely passed to Mahakasyapa" (1977:23;1970:392).

But in spite of the continuity of tradition, there are those who hold "mistaken and distorted views." "Unfortunately many masters have proclaimed the teaching based on their own limited mistaken views... They distorted the teachings to conform to their own misguided interpretation which they contested to be true Buddhism" (1983b: 16; 1972:345). Although these people think they possess the p 262 truth, they are caught in an illusory perspective that can only be exposed by showing them the correct interpretation of the teachings. "Inferior monks remain ignorant and do not know that their teaching is twisted. It is a pity that they are trapped in illusion. Such people have not experienced the Dharma and do not know how to think properly" (1983a:83;1972:76).

Apparently those who hold a correct viewpoint and those who adhere to incorrect doctrine both believe that their view is true, and both verify that view by reference to the tradition. Yet nothing in the Shōbōgenzō indicates how one might adjudicate the conflict of interpretations. The circularity of an appeal to tradition as a means to verify an interpretation of tradition is not raised to the status of an issue. Therefore, even the pivotal principle itself can be stated in circular terms: "This is the Buddhist teaching of right transmission — only those with right transmission can correctly calculate right transmission" (1983a:68;1972:38). As Dōgen seems to sense, the whole procedure seems to rest on one crucial belief: "belief in right transmission" (1977: 181).

But even if there is difficulty in grounding correct belief, it nevertheless remains a central theme throughout the Shōbōgenzō that the truth or falsity of one's doctrine and practice is a matter of great significance. In contrast to much of the Zen tradition that precedes it, the Shōbōgenzō is adamant that doctrine does make a difference. To bring the significance of this position into focus, one might contrast Dōgen’s relentless critique of false views with Nagarjuna's famous "critique of all views." For Dōgen, not all views obstruct realization, only those "outside the way" (gedo). Others, sanctioned by Buddhas and Patriarchs, are to be cultivated. It is significant that the Shōbōgenzō commonly refers to the Lotus Siitra as the highest standard for truth, because this text can clearly be seen to support Dōgen's emphasis on correctness and truth of belief. But this same sutra also expresses a concern for universality and all-inclusiveness. It probes toward a position that, rather than simply contradicting other positions, attempts to take them all in, including them in one universal Dharma. This is also Dōgen 's concern, a concern which derives from a second approach to the question of truth.

Truth as the Embodiment of Dharmata

Some sections of the Shōbōgenzō take a different position on the question of truth. Rather than focusing on conceptual or propositional truth, they maintain that truth is neither graspable in concepts nor expressable in propositions. Although nowhere in the Shōbōgenzō is a systematic theory of knowledge articulated, it is not difficult to p 263 sense, in many chapters, that the Buddhist concepts of impermanence and emptiness (as well as Dōgen’s own practice) stand behind his view that truth, dharmata, is not graspable in conceptual knowledge. Many passages demonstrate a profound insight into the Mahayana understanding of "ungraspability," "unattainability," "incomprehensibility." Two such passages read: "When you have complete understanding then even the ideas of the wisdom of enlightenment or the status of detachment will be seen for what they are — tentative and delusive"(1975:70;1970:260). "We cannot say that there is; or is not, practice and enlightenment — it cannot be comprehended or attained. Again the great meaning is beyond attainment or comprehension. We cannot say that there are no holy truths, practice or enlightenment, nor can we say that there are holy truths, etc. Nothing can be attained, nothing can be comprehended" (1977:5;1970:307)." On this basis, it would be inappropriate to hold, with unquestioning certainty, any view. Such holding is a kind of grasping that prevents attainment of the way.

This second understanding of truth appears to stand in sharp contrast to the first which advocates "correct views" and which seeks to expose heresy (gedo). Some sections of the text even go so far as to proclaim the impossibility of propositional correctness and its inadequacy as the goal of praxis. Even in its most anti-heresy passages, the Shōbōgenzō never comes close to saying that enlightenment consists in absolute knowledge or correct understanding. Clearly, realization does not consist in transcending human limitations; it entails instead an awareness of them and the "unattainability" of perfect knowledge. Thus the Genjokoan chapter maintains that, "when the Dharma is completely present, there is a realization of one's insufficiencies" (1975:2;1970:37). Dharma or truth, therefore, must include those insufficiencies along with an understanding of them. One of the Shobogetizo's most famous passages says, "To have great enlightenment about illusion is to be a Buddha" (1975:1;1970:35). This radical grasp of illusion characterizing a "Buddha" is contrasted with the "great illusions about enlightenment" which characterize sentient beings. One has "great illusions about enlightenment" when one takes it to be the perfect possession of knowledge rather than the humble practice of "no-mind."

One who truly practices the way, realizes the "insufficiencies" of all views and is, therefore, less inclined to engage in the self-centered struggle to have one's own view prevail. In matters of thought, it is more fruitful to seek the strength or the truth of all views. In this vein Dōgen can say, "Never take your own viewpoint to be definitive, alternative interpretations must be studied to develop unified understanding" (1983b:49;1970:130). The attitude appropriate to this kind of p 264 truth is detachment. Such truth becomes manifest only when all self-centered grasping for it is set aside and replaced by a mode of being characterized by openness. Thus the Shōbōgenzō occasionally interrupts meditation on an idea to remind the reader that the text's message can only be understood in a released state of mind. "If there is no detachment, there can be no attainment of this observation" (1975:20;1970:85). No matter how subtle and open a discussion is, the conceptual process inevitably tends toward abstraction, objectification and attachment. "Remember though, that real Buddha mind is detached even from these statements" (1975:20;1970:85).

On this basis Dōgen concludes that ordinary thinking is inadequate to this highest form oftruth. Our rational thought processes only attain the perspectives and opinions criticized above; by their very nature they cannot grasp "the true nature of all dharmas" (dharmata / hossho). On the other hand, a simple negation of thinking gets one no closer to realization. Because non-thinking is a willful, active, and mediated relation to immediate experience it shares essential features with its supposed opposite, thinking. Both thinking and non-thinking express the subject's own effort to determine and "frame" experience in a particular way. Dōgen sets out to show that there is a fundamentally different kind of "thinking" (experience) which he calls "thinking without thinking." [6]

"Without thinking" (hishiryo) is not "non-thinking" (fushiryo) just as Buddhist "no-mind" is not mindlessness. Rather, it is the foundation of mind that encompasses mindfulness and mindlessness — all forms of mind — and thus actualizes mind in its entirety. Dōgen puts it this way: "After we develop the mind of practice through enlightenment, we will realize that the source of all these forms of mind is "no-mind." "No-mind" is the true Buddhist mind undivided, beyond discrimination of opposites — and contains no analysis. To comprehend the true way we need "thinking without thinking" (1975:9;1970:74-75). "Without thinking," according to Dōgen, is the fundamental state of mind; it precedes all discrimination, analysis, and subject/object separation. This prereflective "pure experience" is the basis of all positive and negative reflection. All experiential, linguistic, and conceptual structures arise out of it. This level of experience is prereflective — it precedes thought — both in the sense that it comes first and in the sense that it grounds all reflection. All conceptualized experience has a basis in and is elicited by the world that appears to us preconceptually. The one who does the thinking — the individual subject or self — makes his/her appearance in p 265 the course of time, [7] gradually, and in different ways, but does so, according to the Shōbōgenzō, on the basis of a prior unity. Although forgotten or obscured, this unity is nevertheless always present; without it neither subject nor object would appear. Dharmata (Hossho), "the true nature of all dharmas" is not, therefore, the subject's correct experience of objective dharmas — it is the "presence of things as they are" (genjokoan) prior to the reflective separation between subject and object. Therefore, very often, when Dōgen (and others in his tradition of language practice) speak of mind (shin), they signify neither the subject's reflection, nor the mechanism of reflection, but the total, unbroken process whereby the world comes to manifestation through the subject. In the deepest sense, mind is the unity of experience: "This is the stage of pre-thought beyond egocentric cognition. If you reach this state of pre-thought you will realize the true luminous nature of mind — prethought must become the eye through which you view phenomena" (1975:10;1970:75).[8]

Reflective, second and third order experience, "enforms" and "enframes" this prereflective presence in particular ways. Pattern, structure, and a framework order experience in various ways that are meaningful, suggestive, and useful. But for Dōgen, this thoughtfulness loses track of its character and its basis. The forms and structures of conceptuality are taken to be "the true nature of things" — a closure that fails to see other structures and perspectives, as well as the experiential basis of all subsequent structuring. Fundamentally, mind is open and undetermined. Structural closure is a static and narrowing focus. For this reason, "without thinking" (pre-thought) is characterized in terms of openness and receptivity. Hence Dōgen exhorts his listeners and readers to look at things from different angles and perspectives, to pry open the rigidity of frameworks, and thus, perhaps, to work back through them to their foundation — the pre-reflective, unframed presence of things as they are.

This is the function of zazen, for Dōgen, the practice of things as they are and the occasion for things to be as they are. In true zazen, the practitioner penetrates beneath the structures and norms of conceptualization, beneath even subjectivity and objectivity, to the pure becoming present of dharmas — what is in truth. This truth is transcendent, unlike the truth of propositional correspondence, because it is not conceptually constructed, nor is it graspable in that form. "It completely goes beyond ideas of difference and identity, separation and unity, between this phenomenal world and dharmata" p 266 (1977:64). Its transcendence, however, is its depth and proximity rather than its distance from us. As what is most fundamental and deeply rooted (hon), the truth of dharmata lies so close to us and is so all-pervasive that, immersed in it, we cannot grasp it as something at hand. [9]

The fact that this truth encompasses all beings, whether they know it or not, allows Dōgen, in ecstatic language, to play with the meaning of enlightenment and the dichotomy between enlightenment and illusion. "Priests of the present day think that there are two distinct states: unenlightenment and enlightenment. They think that unenlightenment becomes enlightenment and it is attained from somewhere or someone else. But even that idea is nothing but great enlightenment. ... Consequently, everything, right now, is the eternal present in great enlightenment. This is great enlightenment, this is great enlightenment" (1975:38;1970:24).

All views, including the enlightened and unenlightened, derive from what is most primordial and, therefore, common to all beings. Great enlightenment encompasses everything; it is the "true nature of all dharmas" and is experienced in pre-reflective immediate presence. Therefore, it cannot properly be contrasted with an opposite — unenlightenment.

Thus the text says: "We should not study enlightenment as something that occurs when unenlightened people are awakened to great enlightenment. Both people in illusion and enlightened people have great enlightenment; unenlightened people and those who are not in illusion also have great enlightenment" (1977:55;1972:21).

Truth in this second sense of dharma does not stand in contrast to an opposite such as untruth, falsity or ignorance: "Wisdom and ignorance appear to be in opposition like the sun to the moon but ultimately they transcend this opposition" (1975:62). Rather, untruth or ignorance is simply another form that dharma takes. The Shōbōgenzō continually plays with this paradox: "Turning one's back or opposing truth is malicious. However, truth can even be found in those actions. Who can fathom the relation between maliciousness and truth?" (1975:52;1972:154). Furthermore, this level of truth is indifferent to the distinction between doubt and belief so important to the first meaning of truth discussed. "Even if we doubt it, still Buddha-nature has emerged in us" (1983b:123;1970:48). Dharmata, the true nature of all dharmas, is all-inclusive and inescapable. Neither illusion, doubt, nor everyday mindlessness puts one outside of its scope. Dōgen shows this conclusively in one of the p 267 Shōbōgenzō's most beautifully crafted sections by appealing to the Zen master Baso: "Zen master Baso said, 'Sentient beings have never left the state of dharmatta samadhi throughout myriads of kalpas. They are always in a state of dharmatta samadhi, putting on their clothes, eating rice, greeting their visitors, and using the six sense organs. All their actions are the function of dharmata" (1977:64;1972:84).

Truth in the sense of dharmatta is not something that anyone lacks; not is it, therefore, the legitimate goal or aim of anyone's quest. We already reside within it in an undivided and unqualified way. But what, then, is Dōgen’s Zen about, if not just such a quest? What is the meaning of the Buddhist way of practice if we are already possessed by its goal? According to the traditional story of Dōgen’s life, this very question set Dōgen himself out on his way (from the Buddhist establishment at Hieizan), forcing him to probe beneath the objectifications of Buddhist doctrine toward the experience that initially generated them.

For Dōgen, the question was answered and its problematic character dissolved, when, through his own practice and the guidance of his teacher, he discovered that practice is ill-conceived when it is taken, as it had been traditionally in Buddhism, to be a means to the goal of enlightenment. Dōgen’s realization was that practice is the goal; the goal is to practice (that is, to undertake and perform in all one's actions and at all times) enlightenment. [10] The relationship between practice (shu) and realization (sho) is not to be conceived as a relationship between means and end where one practices in order to attain what one lacks. Rather, in practice, one authenticates the prior presence of Buddha-nature; and Buddha-nature shows its fundamental presence in any act or moment of practice. [11] Practice (exemplified in, but not limited to, zazen) is simply openness to the pre-reflective immediacy that is already present, although hidden beneath conceptual structures and reified ways of framing experience. On this account, practice is not abandoned when realization is attained, it is heightened and becomes more thoroughgoing as the presence of the Buddha-nature is revealed more and more concretely. Therefore, Dōgen says: "Even after attainment of the way, they neither relax nor abandon their practice. Their essence cannot be measured; their essence is their bearing and manner, and this manner is their attain- p 268 ment of the Way" (1977:87). Attainment of the way of practice manifests its results, we see in this passage from Dōgen, in a transformation of one's "bearing" or "manner". This bearing or manner is described as "continuous practice and study of the Way" (1983a:2;1970:166). To practice in this way is to "reside in the truth" (Yokoi: 176) at all times including "daily action, drinking tea and eating rice" (1983a:11;1970:181).

In Dōgen’s view, this all-inclusive and very subtle understanding of practice is the most adequate because it mitigates against dualistic conceptions of practice, which separate it from realization. Therefore, Dōgen calls for practice without expectation of enlightenment, because in this view, such practice is enlightenment. Thus Dōgen exhorts his followers: "Concentrate on practice. Do not expect great enlightenment; great enlightenment is daily action, drinking tea and eating rice" (1983a:11;1970:181).

Throughout this discussion, however, another more subtle distinction emerges: that between those who are engaged in authentic practice and those who are not. Yet how can this distinction be maintained against Dōgen’s claim that all sentient beings are always in the enlightened state of dharmata and that the distinction between enlightened mind and ordinary mind is false? "All minds are mindfullness. The minds of fools and saints, grass and trees" (1977:76; 1972: 184).

The crucial distinction that remains and that Dōgen’s Zen must presuppose is that while dharmata expresses an ontological identity (all experience has its ground in pre-reflective unity), one must still acknowledge that some beings recognize and live in accordance with that realization and some do not. Although all acts are practice and all beings are Buddha-nature, not all beings live in awareness of that fundamental identity. Therefore, in traditional Mahayana terms, while the bodhisattva experiences the identity and emptiness of all beings, as this experience matures in practice, it becomes more and more obvious that most other beings do not recognize the reality in which they live. This difference comes to be experienced as crucial and gives rise to the bodhisattva's compassion. This important distinction can be seen throughout the Shōbōgenzō. In the following passage Dōgen says that doubt and belief are both forms of truth, but whether one realizes this or not makes all the difference: "Even doubts about the dharma are true form. Those who possess the Buddha's wisdom realize this, for they experience a peaceful existence" (1983b:114). Or as the following passage expresses it in paradoxical form, neither enlightenment nor illusion exist, yet to recognize that is enlightenment and not to do so is illusion: "We should p 269 know that neither enlightenment nor illusion exist. Those who are aware of this have attained enlightenment of absolute truth and are called Buddhas" (1983a:129 — my emphasis).

In the Gyoji chapter of the Shōbōgenzō, Dōgen encourages his followers to engage in the "ceaseless practice of the present" (1983a:2;1970:166). But then, further down the page, he says something that could be taken to undercut any basis for encouragement: that all actions already are ceaseless practice (1983a:2; 1970: 166). If all actions already are ceaseless practice, why should one strive to practice ceaselessly? Dōgen’s point here is clearly that one's relation to practice makes all the difference. Although everyone always practices, that is, acts out their destiny in "daily life, eating rice, and drinking tea," most human beings tend to live in a narrowly conceived world of representations that limit and determine the openness and depth of life. To most people daily life is ordinary and dull, while the Buddha-nature they seek is exalted and otherworldly. But to Dōgen, for one who realizes it and practices it, daily life is the life of the Buddha. There is no difference between the acts of the enlightened and unenlightened: both eat rice and drink tea. The difference is manifest only in one's awareness of the activity. For the unenlightened, daily life is that with which one is occupied when one is not practicing. For the enlightened, daily life is practice, and what one practices is openness to the continual manifestation of what is present beyond the subject's own interests, concerns, and projections — indeed, beyond the self's individuated existence.

The second meaning of truth in the Shōbōgenzō, truth as dharmata, goes beyond propositional correctness and correspondence. The "truth" is simply what is — what comes to be — beyond any partial and perspectival grasp that I have on it. This truth grounds all of us, enlightened and unenlightened; we are immersed in it; we speak, think, and act out of it. Still, Dōgen exhorts his listeners/readers: "Look into zazen for the truth" (1977:44;1970:448). Zazen in this passage is the "place" where one can most readily find the truth that already resides within and around one. "Truth" refers both to dharmata and to the awareness of dharmata. The former is nondualistic; dharmata is all that is. But the latter is distinct from its opposite, the absence of such awareness. This distinction between awareness and unawareness of truth generates the difference in "bearing" or "manner" that distinguishes "attainment of the Way" from non-attainment. Such "enlightened bearing" is the mode of being of one whose primary activity is "ceaseless practice of the present" and whose experience, therefore, reflects the "presence of things as they are." p 270

Doctrine and the Unity/Diversity of Truth

In "pure experience" (junsui keikan), a contemporary way of referring to Dōgen’s pre-thinking mode of zazen, no reflective distinctions obtain. All that is, before thought, is the "presence of things as they are" (genjokoan). Nevertheless, as we have seen, the bodhisattva, immersed in this "emptiness", experiences an acute difference among living beings — that some are aware of pure experience and some are not. This experience gives rise to the bodhisattva's compassion and the call to activity. Dōgen’s reflections on this aspect of the tradition, and his own' experience of it, acknowledge the tension between the open receptivity of "pure experience" and the bodhisattva's calling to act and to "make a difference" for other beings. In classical Mahayana language, this is the tension between the experience of emptiness and compassion. Thus Dōgen  says that even though doubt is itself the truth of dharmata, still we should enlighten and transform all doubt: "Even though disbelief is itself true form, still we should enlighten the true lotus flower and thus clarify the eternal existence of Buddha" (1983b:116).

Although "pure experience" is empty and doctrineless, doctrine and teaching are not irrelevant to the bodhisattva's practice. On the contrary, Dōgen  claims that teaching and thought are important aspects of the practice, and that these are inevitably doctrinal matters. Dōgen  is relentless in his critique of the "wordless dharma," the view, widespread in the Zen tradition, that since ultimate truth is beyond language, any form of linguistic or doctrinal teaching is misleading or irrelevant (1977:188-9;1972:261). According to Dōgen, this position is naive about what really takes place in the tradition. "Those who think they know that words are just names and forms do not know that Shakyamuni's words are not bound by letters and forms. Those people are not liberated from ordinary mind. The Buddhas and Patriarchs who have totally cast off body and mind use words to proclaim the Dharma and turn the wheel of law and many benefit from seeing and hearing it. Those who have faith and follow the Dharma will be influenced by both the spoken and wordless Buddhist teachings" (1977:60;1972:57). The text appears to say that doctrine is one means by which one comes to experience the emptiness of doctrine. That doctrine is empty is itself a doctrine that must be appropriated in practice. Thus Dōgen  radically reinterprets the role of language and doctrine in the Zen tradition. On this basis he says that the Zen admonition to "'Abandon profound and marvelous speech' is just another form of profound and marvelous speech" (1977:53;1972: 19).

But the specific status of such "profound and marvelous speech" or doctrinal teaching is as ambiguous a matter as it is important. p 271 Several different possibilities are suggested throughout the text. There are passages that seem to imply that, although doctrine is not ultimately true itself, it can function as a means to the experience of truth. Thus the first meaning of truth as correct doctrine would stand in an instrumental relation to the second, truth as dharmata. In this light Dōgen  can say, "Such an enlightened understanding must be developed by continuous practice and study of the Way" (1977:59;1972:56; Yokoi: 169). [12] But this view is explicitly and rigorously denied by other passages. One of the clearest themes in the Shōbōgenzō is that practice — including doctrinal practice, religious thinking — is not to be conceived as a means to the goal of realization. On the contrary, practice is based on enlightenment and issues from it. Practice in order to enlighten oneself is inauthentic practice, while a single instance of authentic practice actualizes enlightened "bearing." The unity of practice and realization (shusho-ittot / shushoichinyo) applies for thinking and doctrinal understanding in the same way that it does for zazen. Therefore, authentic understanding of the doctrine of genjokoan (the presence of things as they are), for example, is based upon the presence of things as they are, but no amount of thinking about the doctrine of genjokoan puts one in the presence of things as they are.

Pure pre-reflective experience, the Buddha-nature that grounds all beings, is the basis for all thought; reflection (and all activities of the subject) has its point of departure in the unity of subject and object that is pre-reflective. But, human beings differ in the extent to which "pure experience" is obscured or manifested in daily life. Thus, one's thought or doctrinal understanding reflects the state of one's practice and realization.

What one thinks and says (or does, writes, paints, etc.) corresponds to, and therefore reveals, one's mental state and depth of realization. Thought both arises out of and reveals the extent to which one practices and realizes the truth of dharmata in "pure experience." [13]

In the Shōbōgenzō, the conventional means/end relation between practice and realization is inverted: practice is based on realization. This understanding leads Dōgen  beyond the view that correct belief or doctrine is a prerequisite for realization. Instead, the text typically asserts that realization — the presence of things as they are in pre-reflective experience — authenticates doctrine. Doctrine is authenticated (sho) in pure experience in the sense that one comes to understand it for the first time. Prior to this transformation of experience, p 272 one's understanding was superficial and grounded more in subjectivity than in the unity of the situation. In the experience, however, seeing and believing are the same activity. To experience deeply the impermanence of all things is to understand the doctrine of impermanence. To be in "the presence of things as they are" (genjokoan) is to know finally what genjokoan means, thus authenticating a doctrine that before was only superficially believed.

While this theme is crucial for understanding the relation between doctrine and realization in the Shōbōgenzō, it is still incomplete. Even if realization authenticates doctrine, we can still ask: How is doctrine itself significant? Authentic practice — which is realization — is the heart of the matter for Dōgen. That doctrine is authenticated in the process seems almost beside the point until we can see what significance it might have in itself. Indeed, the text's insistence that doctrine not be considered a means to the goal of realization, raises the question: Why does Dōgen  bother with doctrine at all? An adequate answer to this question requires a brief clarification of the apparent opposition between Dōgen’s terms "thinking" (shiryo) and "without-thinking" (hishiryo). If realization isho) is truly "without thinking" (pre-reflective), and if thought does not function as a means to realization, then doctrine would seem to have no role to play in Dōgen’s Zen. But realization is not a negation of thinking (jushiryo), and the Shōbōgenzō is Dōgen’s finest doctrinal expression. For Dōgen, to ground oneself in pre-reflective experience (hishiruo) is not to abandon thought. On the contrary, such experience gives rise to thought of the purest kind, thought that reflects perfectly the "presence of things as they are." "To think without thinking" is to have so thoroughly set aside one's own will, desire, and subjectivity that one's thought reflects the occasion or situation at hand and not one's own design on it. Thought responds to the situation that evokes it by taking its bearings primarily from what is present, both here and now.

Ordinary thinking (shiryo) is the subject's own creation. It accords more with the subject's desire or habits than with the situation at hand. The failure of ordinary thought is that it pre-forms all experience; it simply cannot allow what is to be present as it is. "Thinking without thinking" requires that the subject let go of its own plans and devices, and attend to what is as it comes to presence. Rather than eliminating thought, this simply realigns thought with reality, beyond the subject's own will to enframe it. On some occasions, it is sufficient to be aware of the situation at hand directly, without thinking. More complex situations call for more elaborate and systematic reflection. Both extremes, however, are grounded in the situation rather than in the subject, and both call for an openness that is uncharacteristic of p 273 anything we typically regard as thinking. Pure experience then, gives rise to thought of its own accord, and Dōgen’s religious thought is one form that this thinking can take.

This understanding has far reaching consequences for the status of doctrine. If the situations to which thought conforms are impermanent, always turning into new situations, then doctrine would have to change along with them. Dōgen  does not shy away from this conclusion: the teachings are impermanent: "Therefore, teaching, clarifying impermanence, and practice are by their nature impermanent. Kanzeon proclaims the Dharma by manifesting himself in a form best suited to save sentients. This is Buddha-nature. Sometimes they use a long form to proclaim a long Dharma, sometimes a short form for a short Dharma. Impermanence itself is Buddha-nature" (1983b:128; 1970:54).

What this means is that there cannot be one permanent body of correct doctrine because the reality to which it would have to conform is itself variable and in transformation. As the text says clearly, "circumstances are constantly changing the form of suchness" (1975:130;1972:252). Religious thinking that originates in pure experience does correspond to the reality of the situation, but it is also empty (Ku) in the sense that it originates dependent upon the particularities of the given situation. As an expression (dotoku) of a given occasion (jisetsu), it is neither permanent nor universally applicable. On this account therefore, the Shōbōgenzō should be read as a series of such expressions occasioned or elicited by various and changing circumstances in Dōgen’s world between 1231 and the year of his death in 1253.

If so then Dōgen’s Zen would appear to be ultimately baseless, without any kind of stable and enduring foundation. Again, the text, (Immo chapter) radically confirms our reservations:

Suchness is the real form of truth as it appears throughout the world — it is fluid and differs from any static substance. Our body is not really ours. Our life is easily changed by life and circumstances and never remains static. Countless things pass and we will never see them again. Our mind is also continually changing. Some people wonder: If this is true on what can we rely? But others who have the resolve to seek enlightenment, use this constant flux to deepen their enlightenment (1975: 58).

Dōgen’s position is simply that doctrine's ultimate baselessness is nothing to fear. In fact, that baseless quality of impermanence is the Buddha-nature towards which all authentic doctrine should direct us. But once again a qualification is required. Authentic thinking is not completely baseless. There is something concretely given to which it p 274 must correspond. That is the given situation itself, which comes into being in its own unique form and structure. All thought and action must take their bearings from this situation, responding to it in accordance with the situation's own requirements. Doctrine is authentic to the extent that it is such an open response and to the extent that it includes within it some recognition of its own impermanence/emptiness.

If authentic Zen thinking is a spontaneous response to the situation arising out of "pure experience," it requires no justification in terms of function. As such, it simply belongs to the situation itself, as does the person, whose role is simply to be open to and to respond to "things as they are." Thus Dōgen  can suggest (in Mujo-seppo) that his dharma discourse is not so much his as the dharma's own discourse, speaking through him as it does through all kinds of beings (1983a:68). But the Shōbōgenzō implies further that this thoughtful response to the given situation is extremely important. For Dōgen,  as for the Mahayana tradition generally, doctrinal expressions correspond to the suffering and ignorance of the world. Buddhist thought suits the occasion whenever it alleviates suffering and enlightens ignorance. Since authentic doctrine expresses the "bearing" and "manner" of pure experience, it may function as an inspiration, an enabling power, or an opening toward the experience from which it derives for anyone who is in a position to appropriate it.

Doctrinal expressions also make experience explicit; they bring a pre-reflective mode of being to conscious reflection. The Shōbōgenzō implies in numerous places that this process of thematic understanding is not a supplement to realization. Rather, it seems to be a necessary part of the development of enlightened awareness. Thus the paradoxical phrase "thinking without thinking" appears to express a reciprocal relation between thought and "without thinking." Dōgen  formulates the relation in this way: "Priest Hoen once stated: 'Practice cannot go beyond thought; thought cannot exceed practice.' This expression is important. Think about it day and night, practice it morning and evening." (1983a:lO;1970:179). From this perspective, we necessarily practice what we understand, while, at the same time, understanding is based on practice. Similarly a reciprocal relation can be seen between realization (actualization of pure experience) and practice. Practice is based upon realization. As realization deepens, practice is transformed. One no longer sits zazen in the same way as before nor does one act and conduct daily life in the same way. But the reverse of this must also be true. As practice deepens so does realization, since in the final analyses they are one and the same.

Thus, for Dōgen , thinking should be a spontaneous response to "things as they are" in themselves. As such, it is encompassed by p 275enlightened awareness, for its role is to bring the true situation to conscious awareness. Yet, doctrinal thought has no final status, since it is relative to a given situation. The impermanence of Buddhanature requires doctrinal impermanence. Enlightened awareness takes its cue from impermanence itself and embodies a responsive relation in it. This awareness is expressed most appropriately in doctrines that show their own impermanence/emptiness.

These conclusions prompt one final question: To what extent does the Shōbōgenzō itself manifest this understanding of its own status as an open and thoughtful response to an impermanent situation? This is an extremely complex question to which only a preliminary response is possible here. Dōgen  is well-known for his creative reinterpretations of traditional Buddhist texts and doctrines. Occasionally he ignores the standard grammar and syntax of a traditional text in order to draw a deeper meaning out of a passage. [14] Clearly, his account of truth overcomes the traditional requirement that all interpretation merely duplicate the earlier tradition.

Nevertheless, the Shōbōgenzō usually presents these creative reinterpretations as "correct" (sho) in the sense that they reproduce the original meaning. Occasionally Dōgen  will say: "We should possess the same thought as Shakyamuni at that time" (1977:79-80; 1972: 190). Such passages appear to reflect a more static and a historical position that neglects the prominence of impermanence in other sections of the text. Do these passages follow traditional patterns of thought that exempt aspects of the Buddhist tradition from the emptying process of time? Or do these statements, like others, reflect the demands of the situation and occasion to which each section of the Shōbōgenzō was a response?

One further passage sheds light on this question: "The essence of the Dharma proclaimed by all Buddhas of the three worlds is the same, yet the actual words used depend on the time and circumstances" (1977:173-4;1970:360). This could mean that realization is transhistorical in the sense that it is simply openness to what is as it comes to be in its various and impermanent forms. Time and circumstances transform the doctrine, but its basis — pure, pre-reflective experience — remains the same. This interpretation depends on identifying "the essence of Dharma" as "pure experience," an easily supportable identification but one obviously open to other readings. For the word "dharma" itself has multiple traditional meanings. Two of those meanings correspond with the Shōbōgenzō's two forms of truth. Dharma can mean the teachings themselves (particular doctrines, concepts, and practices), or it can mean their referent, that to p 276 which the teachings themselves point (enlightened awareness). Where "dharma" means the teachings, Shōbō (correct dharma) can mean the correct way to interpret the traditional texts, their proper doctrinal meaning. Where "dharma" is that to which the teachings refer, then truth can mean "the presence of things as they are" in enlightened awareness. The Shōbōgenzō uses this ambiguity fruitfully, and this helps explain both the text's brilliance as a treatise guiding practice at various levels (discourse suited to the situation) and its difficulty as a systematic expression of thought. But the unity of these two kinds of truth is implied in a number of ways, converging in the act of practical application where the particularity of the situation reigns. Notice, finally, how the following passage works between the two: "There are many interpretations and explanations of this koan, but few have understood it correctly. Most people are just groping in the dark. If we look at this koan with a pre-thinking mind we can attain the same real free samadhi as Kyogen, and if we sit zazen like Kyogen we can grasp the meaning of this koan before he even speaks" (1975:114;1972:203-4).[15] Here, to understand "correctly" is not to grasp a universal doctrine or a concept, but to be immersed in the "presence of things as they are" where one "thinks without thinking" and where thought (doctrine) is evoked and thereby authenticated.!"[16]

Notes

1 The Shōbōgenzō is widely regarded as one of the most difficult of all Buddhist texts to translate. What that really means, of course, is that the text is simply difficult to read. The text is deeply rhetorical, resists univocal meaning, and frequently shifts in mood and style. Translation perplexities begin with the title itself. David Shaner translates the title, with equal justification, Treasury of the Correct Dharma-eye. Several other possibilities could also be suggested. What they all indicate, however, is the text's focus on the matter of truth.
2 This correspondence is complicated, however, by the role of tradition as mediator between doctrine and reality and as the standard and guarantor oftruth. Section I below clarifies this relation.
3 References to the Shōbōgenzō will be made first to the Nishiyama translation, followed by the Terada version of the Japanese text. The Nishiyama translation is used here for consistency, in spite of its problems, because it is currently the only complete translation. Wherever difficulties affect passages quoted in this paper, revision will be made and noted. Readers are referred to numerous other translations of sections of the Shōbōgenzō, especially to the Abe/Waddell translations in The Eastern Buddhist and to Cook (1978). For a listing and review of Dōgen translations, see Kasulis (1978).
4 I have found no explicit epistemological discussion, in our modern sense of the term, in the Shōbōgenzō, Yet there are reflections concerning how the correspondence between doctrine and reality are grounded and justified. Tradition and contemplative experience that is authenticated by tradition are the two primary sources ofjustification.
5 Japanese scholars have noticed that the earlier sections of the Shōbōgenzō are more generous in specifying where that correct transmission can be found. Sections written after Dōgen's move to Echizen in 1243 are more sectarian and sometimes very critical of the Rinzai tradition of Zen. Various historical factors could account for this shift in position, but one commonly suggested is that Dōgen's audience changes to become strictly monastic and removed from the pluralistic world of Kyoto.
6 For an exceptionally clear and insightful interpretation of this particular pattern of thought, see T. P. Kasulis (1981).
7 For an account of Dōgen's understanding of temporality (and its relation to Heidegger) and a translation of the Vji (Being-time) text of Dōgen, see Heine.
8 Translation revised.
9 This non-dualistic "proximity" is expressed in another way by Shaner; the truth of dharmata is phenomenologically described as "first-order bodymind awareness."
10 An excellent essay highlighting the unity of practice and enlightenment in Dōgen is Cook (1983).
11 Buddha-nature signifies for Dōgen the ever-changing presence of "things as they are." Masao Abe's essay generated a great deal of the contemporary Western interest in Dōgen, and remains the seminal work on that important topic. Hee-Jin Kim's chapter on the Buddha-nature does an excellent job of showing the relationship between this understanding of Buddha-nature and other themes in Dōgen.
12 Yokoi stipulates "correct belief' as an aspect of the way to realization.
13 For a very helpful discussion of Dōgen's understanding of "expression" see Kim, chapter 3.
14 A classic example of this hermeneutic strategy is described very well by Kodera.
15 Translation revised
16 Earlier versions of this paper were presented to the Twenty Ninth International Congress of Orientalists in Tokyo, Japan (May 1984) and to the Western Regional Meeting of the American Academy of Religion (Los Angeles, 1985).

References

Abe, Masao, 1971,"Dōgen  on Budda Nature." Eastern Buddist 4/1:28-71.
Cook, Francis, 1978, How to Raise an Ox. Los Angeles: Center Publications.
__________, 1983, "Enlightenment in Dōgen 's Zen."The Journal of the International Association of Buddist Studies 6/1:7--30.
Heine, Steven, 1985, Existential and Ontological Dimensions of Time in Heidigger and Degen. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Kasulis, T. P., 1978, "The Zen philosopher: A review article on Dōgen  scholarship in English." Philosophy East and West, (July):353-373
__________, 1981, Zen Action Zen Person. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii
Kim, Hee Jin, 1975, Dōgen  Kigen-Mystical Realist. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press.
Kodera, Takashi James, 1977, "The Budda-nature in Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō" Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 4/4 (December):267-292
Nishiyama, Kosen and John Stevens, trans., 1975, Shōbōgenzō: The Eye and Treasury ofthe True Law. Vol. 1. Sendai, Japan: Daihokkaikaku Publishing Company
__________, 1977, Shōbōgenzō. Vol 2.
__________, 1983a, Shōbōgenzō. Vol 3.
__________, 1983b, Shōbōgenzō. Vol. 4.
Shaner, David, 1985, "The Bodymind Experience in Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō: A phenomenological Perspective." Philosophy East and West (January): 17-35
Terada, To-oru and Mizuno Yaoko, eds., 1970 Shōbōgenzō. Vol. 1. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
__________, 1972 Shōbōgenzō,. Vol. 2.
Yokoi, Yuko, 1976, Zen Master Degen; An Introduction with Selected Writings, New York: John Weatherhill